Fix register typo: rpb -> rbp

Fixes #746

Cargo.lock

@@ -27,6 +27,9 @@ version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
  "bootloader",
  "lazy_static",
+ "linked_list_allocator",
+ "pc-keyboard",
+ "pic8259_simple",
  "spin",
  "uart_16550",
  "volatile",
@@ -48,6 +51,12 @@ dependencies = [
  "rustc_version",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "cpuio"
+version = "0.2.0"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "22b8e308ccfc5acf3b82f79c0eac444cf6114cb2ac67a230ca6c177210068daa"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "lazy_static"
 version = "1.4.0"
@@ -57,12 +66,36 @@ dependencies = [
  "spin",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "linked_list_allocator"
+version = "0.6.4"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "47314ec1d29aa869ee7cb5a5be57be9b1055c56567d59c3fb6689926743e0bea"
+dependencies = [
+ "spin",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "nodrop"
 version = "0.1.14"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "72ef4a56884ca558e5ddb05a1d1e7e1bfd9a68d9ed024c21704cc98872dae1bb"
 
+[[package]]
+name = "pc-keyboard"
+version = "0.3.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "fff50ab09ba31bcebc0669f4e64c0952fae1acdca9e6e0587e68e4e8443808ac"
+
+[[package]]
+name = "pic8259_simple"
+version = "0.1.1"
+source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
+checksum = "dc64b2fd10828da8521b6cdabe0679385d7d2a3a6d4c336b819d1fa31ba35c72"
+dependencies = [
+ "cpuio",
+]
+
 [[package]]
 name = "rustc_version"
 version = "0.2.3"

Cargo.toml

@@ -8,12 +8,19 @@ edition = "2018"
 name = "should_panic"
 harness = false
 
+[[test]]
+name = "stack_overflow"
+harness = false
+
 [dependencies]
-bootloader = "0.8.0"
+bootloader = { version = "0.8.0", features = ["map_physical_memory"]}
 volatile = "0.2.6"
 spin = "0.5.2"
 x86_64 = "0.8.1"
 uart_16550 = "0.2.0"
+pic8259_simple = "0.1.1"
+pc-keyboard = "0.3.1"
+linked_list_allocator = "0.6.4"
 
 [dependencies.lazy_static]
 version = "1.0"
@@ -26,3 +33,6 @@ test-args = [
     "-display", "none"
 ]
 test-success-exit-code = 33         # (0x10 << 1) | 1
+
+[profile.release]
+lto = true

README.md

@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
-# Blog OS (CPU Exceptions)
+# Blog OS (Heap Allocation)
 
-[![Build Status](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/workflows/Build%20Code/badge.svg?branch=post-05)](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/actions?query=workflow%3A%22Build+Code%22+branch%3Apost-05)
+[![Build Status](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/workflows/Build%20Code/badge.svg?branch=post-10)](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/actions?query=workflow%3A%22Build+Code%22+branch%3Apost-10)
 
-This repository contains the source code for the [CPU Exceptions][post] post of the [Writing an OS in Rust](https://os.phil-opp.com) series.
+This repository contains the source code for the [Heap Allocation][post] post of the [Writing an OS in Rust](https://os.phil-opp.com) series.
 
-[post]: https://os.phil-opp.com/cpu-exceptions/
+[post]: https://os.phil-opp.com/heap-allocation/
 
 **Check out the [master branch](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os) for more information.**
 

src/allocator/bump.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+use super::{align_up, Locked};
+use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
+use core::ptr;
+
+pub struct BumpAllocator {
+    heap_start: usize,
+    heap_end: usize,
+    next: usize,
+    allocations: usize,
+}
+
+impl BumpAllocator {
+    /// Creates a new empty bump allocator.
+    pub const fn new() -> Self {
+        BumpAllocator {
+            heap_start: 0,
+            heap_end: 0,
+            next: 0,
+            allocations: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Initializes the bump allocator with the given heap bounds.
+    ///
+    /// This method is unsafe because the caller must ensure that the given
+    /// memory range is unused. Also, this method must be called only once.
+    pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) {
+        self.heap_start = heap_start;
+        self.heap_end = heap_start + heap_size;
+        self.next = heap_start;
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked<BumpAllocator> {
+    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        let mut bump = self.lock(); // get a mutable reference
+
+        let alloc_start = align_up(bump.next, layout.align());
+        let alloc_end = alloc_start + layout.size();
+
+        if alloc_end > bump.heap_end {
+            ptr::null_mut() // out of memory
+        } else {
+            bump.next = alloc_end;
+            bump.allocations += 1;
+            alloc_start as *mut u8
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, _ptr: *mut u8, _layout: Layout) {
+        let mut bump = self.lock(); // get a mutable reference
+
+        bump.allocations -= 1;
+        if bump.allocations == 0 {
+            bump.next = bump.heap_start;
+        }
+    }
+}

src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+use super::Locked;
+use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
+use core::{
+    mem,
+    ptr::{self, NonNull},
+};
+
+/// The block sizes to use.
+///
+/// The sizes must each be power of 2 because they are also used as
+/// the block alignment (alignments must be always powers of 2).
+const BLOCK_SIZES: &[usize] = &[8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048];
+
+/// Choose an appropriate block size for the given layout.
+///
+/// Returns an index into the `BLOCK_SIZES` array.
+fn list_index(layout: &Layout) -> Option<usize> {
+    let required_block_size = layout.size().max(layout.align());
+    BLOCK_SIZES.iter().position(|&s| s >= required_block_size)
+}
+
+struct ListNode {
+    next: Option<&'static mut ListNode>,
+}
+
+pub struct FixedSizeBlockAllocator {
+    list_heads: [Option<&'static mut ListNode>; BLOCK_SIZES.len()],
+    fallback_allocator: linked_list_allocator::Heap,
+}
+
+impl FixedSizeBlockAllocator {
+    /// Creates an empty FixedSizeBlockAllocator.
+    pub const fn new() -> Self {
+        FixedSizeBlockAllocator {
+            list_heads: [None; BLOCK_SIZES.len()],
+            fallback_allocator: linked_list_allocator::Heap::empty(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Initialize the allocator with the given heap bounds.
+    ///
+    /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the given
+    /// heap bounds are valid and that the heap is unused. This method must be
+    /// called only once.
+    pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) {
+        self.fallback_allocator.init(heap_start, heap_size);
+    }
+
+    /// Allocates using the fallback allocator.
+    fn fallback_alloc(&mut self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        match self.fallback_allocator.allocate_first_fit(layout) {
+            Ok(ptr) => ptr.as_ptr(),
+            Err(_) => ptr::null_mut(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked<FixedSizeBlockAllocator> {
+    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        let mut allocator = self.lock();
+        match list_index(&layout) {
+            Some(index) => {
+                match allocator.list_heads[index].take() {
+                    Some(node) => {
+                        allocator.list_heads[index] = node.next.take();
+                        node as *mut ListNode as *mut u8
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        // no block exists in list => allocate new block
+                        let block_size = BLOCK_SIZES[index];
+                        // only works if all block sizes are a power of 2
+                        let block_align = block_size;
+                        let layout = Layout::from_size_align(block_size, block_align).unwrap();
+                        allocator.fallback_alloc(layout)
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            None => allocator.fallback_alloc(layout),
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) {
+        let mut allocator = self.lock();
+        match list_index(&layout) {
+            Some(index) => {
+                let new_node = ListNode {
+                    next: allocator.list_heads[index].take(),
+                };
+                // verify that block has size and alignment required for storing node
+                assert!(mem::size_of::<ListNode>() <= BLOCK_SIZES[index]);
+                assert!(mem::align_of::<ListNode>() <= BLOCK_SIZES[index]);
+                let new_node_ptr = ptr as *mut ListNode;
+                new_node_ptr.write(new_node);
+                allocator.list_heads[index] = Some(&mut *new_node_ptr);
+            }
+            None => {
+                let ptr = NonNull::new(ptr).unwrap();
+                allocator.fallback_allocator.deallocate(ptr, layout);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}

src/allocator/linked_list.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+use super::{align_up, Locked};
+use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
+use core::{mem, ptr};
+
+struct ListNode {
+    size: usize,
+    next: Option<&'static mut ListNode>,
+}
+
+impl ListNode {
+    const fn new(size: usize) -> Self {
+        ListNode { size, next: None }
+    }
+
+    fn start_addr(&self) -> usize {
+        self as *const Self as usize
+    }
+
+    fn end_addr(&self) -> usize {
+        self.start_addr() + self.size
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct LinkedListAllocator {
+    head: ListNode,
+}
+
+impl LinkedListAllocator {
+    /// Creates an empty LinkedListAllocator.
+    pub const fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            head: ListNode::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Initialize the allocator with the given heap bounds.
+    ///
+    /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the given
+    /// heap bounds are valid and that the heap is unused. This method must be
+    /// called only once.
+    pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) {
+        self.add_free_region(heap_start, heap_size);
+    }
+
+    /// Adds the given memory region to the front of the list.
+    unsafe fn add_free_region(&mut self, addr: usize, size: usize) {
+        // ensure that the freed region is capable of holding ListNode
+        assert!(align_up(addr, mem::align_of::<ListNode>()) == addr);
+        assert!(size >= mem::size_of::<ListNode>());
+
+        // create a new list node and append it at the start of the list
+        let mut node = ListNode::new(size);
+        node.next = self.head.next.take();
+        let node_ptr = addr as *mut ListNode;
+        node_ptr.write(node);
+        self.head.next = Some(&mut *node_ptr)
+    }
+
+    /// Looks for a free region with the given size and alignment and removes
+    /// it from the list.
+    ///
+    /// Returns a tuple of the list node and the start address of the allocation.
+    fn find_region(&mut self, size: usize, align: usize) -> Option<(&'static mut ListNode, usize)> {
+        // reference to current list node, updated for each iteration
+        let mut current = &mut self.head;
+        // look for a large enough memory region in linked list
+        while let Some(ref mut region) = current.next {
+            if let Ok(alloc_start) = Self::alloc_from_region(&region, size, align) {
+                // region suitable for allocation -> remove node from list
+                let next = region.next.take();
+                let ret = Some((current.next.take().unwrap(), alloc_start));
+                current.next = next;
+                return ret;
+            } else {
+                // region not suitable -> continue with next region
+                current = current.next.as_mut().unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+
+        // no suitable region found
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Try to use the given region for an allocation with given size and alignment.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the allocation start address on success.
+    fn alloc_from_region(region: &ListNode, size: usize, align: usize) -> Result<usize, ()> {
+        let alloc_start = align_up(region.start_addr(), align);
+        let alloc_end = alloc_start + size;
+
+        if alloc_end > region.end_addr() {
+            // region too small
+            return Err(());
+        }
+
+        let excess_size = region.end_addr() - alloc_end;
+        if excess_size > 0 && excess_size < mem::size_of::<ListNode>() {
+            // rest of region too small to hold a ListNode (required because the
+            // allocation splits the region in a used and a free part)
+            return Err(());
+        }
+
+        // region suitable for allocation
+        Ok(alloc_start)
+    }
+
+    /// Adjust the given layout so that the resulting allocated memory
+    /// region is also capable of storing a `ListNode`.
+    ///
+    /// Returns the adjusted size and alignment as a (size, align) tuple.
+    fn size_align(layout: Layout) -> (usize, usize) {
+        let layout = layout
+            .align_to(mem::align_of::<ListNode>())
+            .expect("adjusting alignment failed")
+            .pad_to_align();
+        let size = layout.size().max(mem::size_of::<ListNode>());
+        (size, layout.align())
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked<LinkedListAllocator> {
+    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        // perform layout adjustments
+        let (size, align) = LinkedListAllocator::size_align(layout);
+        let mut allocator = self.inner.lock();
+
+        if let Some((region, alloc_start)) = allocator.find_region(size, align) {
+            let alloc_end = alloc_start + size;
+            let excess_size = region.end_addr() - alloc_end;
+            if excess_size > 0 {
+                allocator.add_free_region(alloc_end, excess_size);
+            }
+            alloc_start as *mut u8
+        } else {
+            ptr::null_mut()
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) {
+        // perform layout adjustments
+        let (size, _) = LinkedListAllocator::size_align(layout);
+
+        self.inner.lock().add_free_region(ptr as usize, size)
+    }
+}

src/allocator/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
+use core::ptr::null_mut;
+use fixed_size_block::FixedSizeBlockAllocator;
+use x86_64::{
+    structures::paging::{
+        mapper::MapToError, FrameAllocator, Mapper, Page, PageTableFlags, Size4KiB,
+    },
+    VirtAddr,
+};
+
+pub mod bump;
+pub mod fixed_size_block;
+pub mod linked_list;
+
+pub const HEAP_START: usize = 0x_4444_4444_0000;
+pub const HEAP_SIZE: usize = 100 * 1024; // 100 KiB
+
+#[global_allocator]
+static ALLOCATOR: Locked<FixedSizeBlockAllocator> = Locked::new(FixedSizeBlockAllocator::new());
+
+pub fn init_heap(
+    mapper: &mut impl Mapper<Size4KiB>,
+    frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
+) -> Result<(), MapToError> {
+    let page_range = {
+        let heap_start = VirtAddr::new(HEAP_START as u64);
+        let heap_end = heap_start + HEAP_SIZE - 1u64;
+        let heap_start_page = Page::containing_address(heap_start);
+        let heap_end_page = Page::containing_address(heap_end);
+        Page::range_inclusive(heap_start_page, heap_end_page)
+    };
+
+    for page in page_range {
+        let frame = frame_allocator
+            .allocate_frame()
+            .ok_or(MapToError::FrameAllocationFailed)?;
+        let flags = PageTableFlags::PRESENT | PageTableFlags::WRITABLE;
+        mapper.map_to(page, frame, flags, frame_allocator)?.flush();
+    }
+
+    unsafe {
+        ALLOCATOR.lock().init(HEAP_START, HEAP_SIZE);
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub struct Dummy;
+
+unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Dummy {
+    unsafe fn alloc(&self, _layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
+        null_mut()
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, _ptr: *mut u8, _layout: Layout) {
+        panic!("dealloc should be never called")
+    }
+}
+
+/// A wrapper around spin::Mutex to permit trait implementations.
+pub struct Locked<A> {
+    inner: spin::Mutex<A>,
+}
+
+impl<A> Locked<A> {
+    pub const fn new(inner: A) -> Self {
+        Locked {
+            inner: spin::Mutex::new(inner),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn lock(&self) -> spin::MutexGuard<A> {
+        self.inner.lock()
+    }
+}
+
+fn align_up(addr: usize, align: usize) -> usize {
+    let remainder = addr % align;
+    if remainder == 0 {
+        addr // addr already aligned
+    } else {
+        addr - remainder + align
+    }
+}

src/gdt.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+use lazy_static::lazy_static;
+use x86_64::structures::gdt::{Descriptor, GlobalDescriptorTable, SegmentSelector};
+use x86_64::structures::tss::TaskStateSegment;
+use x86_64::VirtAddr;
+
+pub const DOUBLE_FAULT_IST_INDEX: u16 = 0;
+
+lazy_static! {
+    static ref TSS: TaskStateSegment = {
+        let mut tss = TaskStateSegment::new();
+        tss.interrupt_stack_table[DOUBLE_FAULT_IST_INDEX as usize] = {
+            const STACK_SIZE: usize = 4096;
+            static mut STACK: [u8; STACK_SIZE] = [0; STACK_SIZE];
+
+            let stack_start = VirtAddr::from_ptr(unsafe { &STACK });
+            let stack_end = stack_start + STACK_SIZE;
+            stack_end
+        };
+        tss
+    };
+}
+
+lazy_static! {
+    static ref GDT: (GlobalDescriptorTable, Selectors) = {
+        let mut gdt = GlobalDescriptorTable::new();
+        let code_selector = gdt.add_entry(Descriptor::kernel_code_segment());
+        let tss_selector = gdt.add_entry(Descriptor::tss_segment(&TSS));
+        (
+            gdt,
+            Selectors {
+                code_selector,
+                tss_selector,
+            },
+        )
+    };
+}
+
+struct Selectors {
+    code_selector: SegmentSelector,
+    tss_selector: SegmentSelector,
+}
+
+pub fn init() {
+    use x86_64::instructions::segmentation::set_cs;
+    use x86_64::instructions::tables::load_tss;
+
+    GDT.0.load();
+    unsafe {
+        set_cs(GDT.1.code_selector);
+        load_tss(GDT.1.tss_selector);
+    }
+}

src/interrupts.rs

@@ -1,11 +1,44 @@
-use crate::println;
+use crate::{gdt, hlt_loop, print, println};
 use lazy_static::lazy_static;
-use x86_64::structures::idt::{InterruptDescriptorTable, InterruptStackFrame};
+use pic8259_simple::ChainedPics;
+use spin;
+use x86_64::structures::idt::{InterruptDescriptorTable, InterruptStackFrame, PageFaultErrorCode};
+
+pub const PIC_1_OFFSET: u8 = 32;
+pub const PIC_2_OFFSET: u8 = PIC_1_OFFSET + 8;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+#[repr(u8)]
+pub enum InterruptIndex {
+    Timer = PIC_1_OFFSET,
+    Keyboard,
+}
+
+impl InterruptIndex {
+    fn as_u8(self) -> u8 {
+        self as u8
+    }
+
+    fn as_usize(self) -> usize {
+        usize::from(self.as_u8())
+    }
+}
+
+pub static PICS: spin::Mutex<ChainedPics> =
+    spin::Mutex::new(unsafe { ChainedPics::new(PIC_1_OFFSET, PIC_2_OFFSET) });
 
 lazy_static! {
     static ref IDT: InterruptDescriptorTable = {
         let mut idt = InterruptDescriptorTable::new();
         idt.breakpoint.set_handler_fn(breakpoint_handler);
+        idt.page_fault.set_handler_fn(page_fault_handler);
+        unsafe {
+            idt.double_fault
+                .set_handler_fn(double_fault_handler)
+                .set_stack_index(gdt::DOUBLE_FAULT_IST_INDEX);
+        }
+        idt[InterruptIndex::Timer.as_usize()].set_handler_fn(timer_interrupt_handler);
+        idt[InterruptIndex::Keyboard.as_usize()].set_handler_fn(keyboard_interrupt_handler);
         idt
     };
 }
@@ -18,6 +51,64 @@ extern "x86-interrupt" fn breakpoint_handler(stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFra
     println!("EXCEPTION: BREAKPOINT\n{:#?}", stack_frame);
 }
 
+extern "x86-interrupt" fn page_fault_handler(
+    stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame,
+    error_code: PageFaultErrorCode,
+) {
+    use x86_64::registers::control::Cr2;
+
+    println!("EXCEPTION: PAGE FAULT");
+    println!("Accessed Address: {:?}", Cr2::read());
+    println!("Error Code: {:?}", error_code);
+    println!("{:#?}", stack_frame);
+    hlt_loop();
+}
+
+extern "x86-interrupt" fn double_fault_handler(
+    stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame,
+    _error_code: u64,
+) -> ! {
+    panic!("EXCEPTION: DOUBLE FAULT\n{:#?}", stack_frame);
+}
+
+extern "x86-interrupt" fn timer_interrupt_handler(_stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame) {
+    print!(".");
+    unsafe {
+        PICS.lock()
+            .notify_end_of_interrupt(InterruptIndex::Timer.as_u8());
+    }
+    crate::multitasking::invoke_scheduler();
+}
+
+extern "x86-interrupt" fn keyboard_interrupt_handler(_stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame) {
+    use pc_keyboard::{layouts, DecodedKey, Keyboard, ScancodeSet1};
+    use spin::Mutex;
+    use x86_64::instructions::port::Port;
+
+    lazy_static! {
+        static ref KEYBOARD: Mutex<Keyboard<layouts::Us104Key, ScancodeSet1>> =
+            Mutex::new(Keyboard::new(layouts::Us104Key, ScancodeSet1));
+    }
+
+    let mut keyboard = KEYBOARD.lock();
+    let mut port = Port::new(0x60);
+
+    let scancode: u8 = unsafe { port.read() };
+    if let Ok(Some(key_event)) = keyboard.add_byte(scancode) {
+        if let Some(key) = keyboard.process_keyevent(key_event) {
+            match key {
+                DecodedKey::Unicode(character) => print!("{}", character),
+                DecodedKey::RawKey(key) => print!("{:?}", key),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    unsafe {
+        PICS.lock()
+            .notify_end_of_interrupt(InterruptIndex::Keyboard.as_u8());
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 use crate::{serial_print, serial_println};
 

src/lib.rs

@@ -2,17 +2,36 @@
 #![cfg_attr(test, no_main)]
 #![feature(custom_test_frameworks)]
 #![feature(abi_x86_interrupt)]
+#![feature(alloc_error_handler)]
+#![feature(const_fn)]
+#![feature(alloc_layout_extra)]
+#![feature(const_in_array_repeat_expressions)]
+#![feature(global_asm)]
+#![feature(asm)]
+#![feature(raw)]
+#![feature(never_type)]
+#![feature(naked_functions)]
+#![feature(option_expect_none)]
 #![test_runner(crate::test_runner)]
 #![reexport_test_harness_main = "test_main"]
 
+extern crate alloc;
+
 use core::panic::PanicInfo;
 
+pub mod allocator;
+pub mod gdt;
 pub mod interrupts;
+pub mod memory;
+pub mod multitasking;
 pub mod serial;
 pub mod vga_buffer;
 
 pub fn init() {
+    gdt::init();
     interrupts::init_idt();
+    unsafe { interrupts::PICS.lock().initialize() };
+    x86_64::instructions::interrupts::enable();
 }
 
 pub fn test_runner(tests: &[&dyn Fn()]) {
@@ -27,7 +46,7 @@ pub fn test_panic_handler(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
     serial_println!("[failed]\n");
     serial_println!("Error: {}\n", info);
     exit_qemu(QemuExitCode::Failed);
-    loop {}
+    hlt_loop();
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -46,13 +65,24 @@ pub fn exit_qemu(exit_code: QemuExitCode) {
     }
 }
 
+pub fn hlt_loop() -> ! {
+    loop {
+        x86_64::instructions::hlt();
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+use bootloader::{entry_point, BootInfo};
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+entry_point!(test_kernel_main);
+
 /// Entry point for `cargo xtest`
 #[cfg(test)]
-#[no_mangle]
+fn test_kernel_main(_boot_info: &'static BootInfo) -> ! {
-pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
     init();
     test_main();
-    loop {}
+    hlt_loop();
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -60,3 +90,8 @@ pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
 fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
     test_panic_handler(info)
 }
+
+#[alloc_error_handler]
+fn alloc_error_handler(layout: alloc::alloc::Layout) -> ! {
+    panic!("allocation error: {:?}", layout)
+}

src/main.rs

@@ -4,31 +4,98 @@
 #![test_runner(blog_os::test_runner)]
 #![reexport_test_harness_main = "test_main"]
 
-use blog_os::println;
+extern crate alloc;
+
+use alloc::{boxed::Box, rc::Rc, vec, vec::Vec};
+use blog_os::multitasking::{self, thread::Thread, with_scheduler};
+use blog_os::{print, println};
+use bootloader::{entry_point, BootInfo};
 use core::panic::PanicInfo;
 
-#[no_mangle]
+entry_point!(kernel_main);
-pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
-    println!("Hello World{}", "!");
 
+fn kernel_main(boot_info: &'static BootInfo) -> ! {
+    use blog_os::allocator;
+    use blog_os::memory::{self, BootInfoFrameAllocator};
+    use x86_64::VirtAddr;
+
+    println!("Hello World{}", "!");
     blog_os::init();
 
-    // invoke a breakpoint exception
+    let phys_mem_offset = VirtAddr::new(boot_info.physical_memory_offset);
-    x86_64::instructions::interrupts::int3();
+    let mut mapper = unsafe { memory::init(phys_mem_offset) };
+    let mut frame_allocator = unsafe { BootInfoFrameAllocator::init(&boot_info.memory_map) };
+
+    allocator::init_heap(&mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator).expect("heap initialization failed");
+
+    // allocate a number on the heap
+    let heap_value = Box::new(41);
+    println!("heap_value at {:p}", heap_value);
+
+    // create a dynamically sized vector
+    let mut vec = Vec::new();
+    for i in 0..500 {
+        vec.push(i);
+    }
+    println!("vec at {:p}", vec.as_slice());
+
+    // create a reference counted vector -> will be freed when count reaches 0
+    let reference_counted = Rc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+    let cloned_reference = reference_counted.clone();
+    println!(
+        "current reference count is {}",
+        Rc::strong_count(&cloned_reference)
+    );
+    core::mem::drop(reference_counted);
+    println!(
+        "reference count is {} now",
+        Rc::strong_count(&cloned_reference)
+    );
 
     #[cfg(test)]
     test_main();
 
+    let idle_thread = Thread::create(idle_thread, 2, &mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator).unwrap();
+    with_scheduler(|s| s.set_idle_thread(idle_thread));
+
+    for _ in 0..10 {
+        let thread = Thread::create(thread_entry, 2, &mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator).unwrap();
+        with_scheduler(|s| s.add_new_thread(thread));
+    }
+    let thread =
+        Thread::create_from_closure(|| thread_entry(), 2, &mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator)
+            .unwrap();
+    with_scheduler(|s| s.add_new_thread(thread));
+
     println!("It did not crash!");
-    loop {}
+    thread_entry();
+}
+
+fn idle_thread() -> ! {
+    loop {
+        x86_64::instructions::hlt();
+        multitasking::yield_now();
+    }
+}
+
+fn thread_entry() -> ! {
+    let thread_id = with_scheduler(|s| s.current_thread_id()).as_u64();
+    for _ in 0..=thread_id {
+        print!("{}", thread_id);
+        x86_64::instructions::hlt();
+    }
+    multitasking::exit_thread();
 }
 
 /// This function is called on panic.
 #[cfg(not(test))]
 #[panic_handler]
 fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
+    unsafe {
+        blog_os::vga_buffer::WRITER.force_unlock();
+    }
     println!("{}", info);
-    loop {}
+    blog_os::hlt_loop();
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]

src/memory.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+use bootloader::bootinfo::{MemoryMap, MemoryRegionType};
+use x86_64::{
+    structures::paging::{
+        mapper, FrameAllocator, Mapper, OffsetPageTable, Page, PageTable, PhysFrame, Size4KiB,
+        UnusedPhysFrame,
+    },
+    PhysAddr, VirtAddr,
+};
+
+/// Initialize a new OffsetPageTable.
+///
+/// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the
+/// complete physical memory is mapped to virtual memory at the passed
+/// `physical_memory_offset`. Also, this function must be only called once
+/// to avoid aliasing `&mut` references (which is undefined behavior).
+pub unsafe fn init(physical_memory_offset: VirtAddr) -> OffsetPageTable<'static> {
+    let level_4_table = active_level_4_table(physical_memory_offset);
+    OffsetPageTable::new(level_4_table, physical_memory_offset)
+}
+
+/// Returns a mutable reference to the active level 4 table.
+///
+/// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the
+/// complete physical memory is mapped to virtual memory at the passed
+/// `physical_memory_offset`. Also, this function must be only called once
+/// to avoid aliasing `&mut` references (which is undefined behavior).
+unsafe fn active_level_4_table(physical_memory_offset: VirtAddr) -> &'static mut PageTable {
+    use x86_64::registers::control::Cr3;
+
+    let (level_4_table_frame, _) = Cr3::read();
+
+    let phys = level_4_table_frame.start_address();
+    let virt = physical_memory_offset + phys.as_u64();
+    let page_table_ptr: *mut PageTable = virt.as_mut_ptr();
+
+    &mut *page_table_ptr // unsafe
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct StackBounds {
+    start: VirtAddr,
+    end: VirtAddr,
+}
+
+impl StackBounds {
+    pub fn start(&self) -> VirtAddr {
+        self.start
+    }
+
+    pub fn end(&self) -> VirtAddr {
+        self.end
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn alloc_stack(
+    size_in_pages: u64,
+    mapper: &mut impl Mapper<Size4KiB>,
+    frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
+) -> Result<StackBounds, mapper::MapToError> {
+    use core::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+    use x86_64::structures::paging::PageTableFlags as Flags;
+
+    static STACK_ALLOC_NEXT: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0x_5555_5555_0000);
+
+    let guard_page_start = STACK_ALLOC_NEXT.fetch_add(
+        (size_in_pages + 1) * Page::<Size4KiB>::SIZE,
+        Ordering::SeqCst,
+    );
+    let guard_page = Page::from_start_address(VirtAddr::new(guard_page_start))
+        .expect("`STACK_ALLOC_NEXT` not page aligned");
+
+    let stack_start = guard_page + 1;
+    let stack_end = stack_start + size_in_pages;
+    let flags = Flags::PRESENT | Flags::WRITABLE;
+    for page in Page::range(stack_start, stack_end) {
+        let frame = frame_allocator
+            .allocate_frame()
+            .ok_or(mapper::MapToError::FrameAllocationFailed)?;
+        mapper.map_to(page, frame, flags, frame_allocator)?.flush();
+    }
+    Ok(StackBounds {
+        start: stack_start.start_address(),
+        end: stack_end.start_address(),
+    })
+}
+
+/// Creates an example mapping for the given page to frame `0xb8000`.
+pub fn create_example_mapping(
+    page: Page,
+    mapper: &mut OffsetPageTable,
+    frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
+) {
+    use x86_64::structures::paging::PageTableFlags as Flags;
+
+    let frame = PhysFrame::containing_address(PhysAddr::new(0xb8000));
+    // FIXME: ONLY FOR TEMPORARY TESTING
+    let unused_frame = unsafe { UnusedPhysFrame::new(frame) };
+    let flags = Flags::PRESENT | Flags::WRITABLE;
+
+    let map_to_result = mapper.map_to(page, unused_frame, flags, frame_allocator);
+    map_to_result.expect("map_to failed").flush();
+}
+
+/// A FrameAllocator that always returns `None`.
+pub struct EmptyFrameAllocator;
+
+unsafe impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB> for EmptyFrameAllocator {
+    fn allocate_frame(&mut self) -> Option<UnusedPhysFrame> {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// A FrameAllocator that returns usable frames from the bootloader's memory map.
+pub struct BootInfoFrameAllocator {
+    memory_map: &'static MemoryMap,
+    next: usize,
+}
+
+impl BootInfoFrameAllocator {
+    /// Create a FrameAllocator from the passed memory map.
+    ///
+    /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the passed
+    /// memory map is valid. The main requirement is that all frames that are marked
+    /// as `USABLE` in it are really unused.
+    pub unsafe fn init(memory_map: &'static MemoryMap) -> Self {
+        BootInfoFrameAllocator {
+            memory_map,
+            next: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns an iterator over the usable frames specified in the memory map.
+    fn usable_frames(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = UnusedPhysFrame> {
+        // get usable regions from memory map
+        let regions = self.memory_map.iter();
+        let usable_regions = regions.filter(|r| r.region_type == MemoryRegionType::Usable);
+        // map each region to its address range
+        let addr_ranges = usable_regions.map(|r| r.range.start_addr()..r.range.end_addr());
+        // transform to an iterator of frame start addresses
+        let frame_addresses = addr_ranges.flat_map(|r| r.step_by(4096));
+        // create `PhysFrame` types from the start addresses
+        let frames = frame_addresses.map(|addr| PhysFrame::containing_address(PhysAddr::new(addr)));
+        // we know that the frames are really unused
+        frames.map(|f| unsafe { UnusedPhysFrame::new(f) })
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB> for BootInfoFrameAllocator {
+    fn allocate_frame(&mut self) -> Option<UnusedPhysFrame> {
+        let frame = self.usable_frames().nth(self.next);
+        self.next += 1;
+        frame
+    }
+}

src/multitasking/context_switch.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+use super::{with_scheduler, SwitchReason};
+use crate::multitasking::thread::ThreadId;
+use alloc::boxed::Box;
+use core::mem;
+use core::raw::TraitObject;
+use x86_64::VirtAddr;
+
+pub struct Stack {
+    pointer: VirtAddr,
+}
+
+impl Stack {
+    pub unsafe fn new(stack_pointer: VirtAddr) -> Self {
+        Stack {
+            pointer: stack_pointer,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn get_stack_pointer(self) -> VirtAddr {
+        self.pointer
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_up_for_closure(&mut self, closure: Box<dyn FnOnce() -> !>) {
+        let trait_object: TraitObject = unsafe { mem::transmute(closure) };
+        unsafe { self.push(trait_object.data) };
+        unsafe { self.push(trait_object.vtable) };
+
+        self.set_up_for_entry_point(call_closure_entry);
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_up_for_entry_point(&mut self, entry_point: fn() -> !) {
+        unsafe { self.push(entry_point) };
+        let rflags: u64 = 0x200;
+        unsafe { self.push(rflags) };
+    }
+
+    unsafe fn push<T>(&mut self, value: T) {
+        self.pointer -= core::mem::size_of::<T>();
+        let ptr: *mut T = self.pointer.as_mut_ptr();
+        ptr.write(value);
+    }
+}
+
+pub unsafe fn context_switch_to(
+    new_stack_pointer: VirtAddr,
+    prev_thread_id: ThreadId,
+    switch_reason: SwitchReason,
+) {
+    asm!(
+        "call asm_context_switch"
+        :
+        : "{rdi}"(new_stack_pointer), "{rsi}"(prev_thread_id), "{rdx}"(switch_reason as u64)
+        : "rax", "rbx", "rcx", "rdx", "rsi", "rdi", "rbp", "r8", "r9", "r10",
+        "r11", "r12", "r13", "r14", "r15", "rflags", "memory"
+        : "intel", "volatile"
+    );
+}
+
+global_asm!(
+    "
+    .intel_syntax noprefix
+
+    // asm_context_switch(stack_pointer: u64, thread_id: u64)
+    asm_context_switch:
+        pushfq
+
+        mov rax, rsp
+        mov rsp, rdi
+
+        mov rdi, rax
+        call add_paused_thread
+
+        popfq
+        ret
+"
+);
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn add_paused_thread(
+    paused_stack_pointer: VirtAddr,
+    paused_thread_id: ThreadId,
+    switch_reason: SwitchReason,
+) {
+    with_scheduler(|s| s.add_paused_thread(paused_stack_pointer, paused_thread_id, switch_reason));
+}
+
+#[naked]
+fn call_closure_entry() -> ! {
+    unsafe {
+        asm!("
+        pop rsi
+        pop rdi
+        call call_closure
+    " ::: "mem" : "intel", "volatile")
+    };
+    unreachable!();
+}
+
+// no_mangle required because of https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/68136
+#[no_mangle]
+extern "C" fn call_closure(data: *mut (), vtable: *mut ()) -> ! {
+    let trait_object = TraitObject { data, vtable };
+    let f: Box<dyn FnOnce() -> !> = unsafe { mem::transmute(trait_object) };
+    f()
+}

src/multitasking/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+use scheduler::Scheduler;
+
+pub mod context_switch;
+pub mod scheduler;
+pub mod thread;
+
+static SCHEDULER: spin::Mutex<Option<Scheduler>> = spin::Mutex::new(None);
+
+#[repr(u64)]
+pub enum SwitchReason {
+    Paused,
+    Yield,
+    Blocked,
+    Exit,
+}
+
+pub fn invoke_scheduler() {
+    let next = SCHEDULER
+        .try_lock()
+        .and_then(|mut scheduler| scheduler.as_mut().and_then(|s| s.schedule()));
+    if let Some((next_stack_pointer, prev_thread_id)) = next {
+        unsafe {
+            context_switch::context_switch_to(
+                next_stack_pointer,
+                prev_thread_id,
+                SwitchReason::Paused,
+            )
+        };
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn exit_thread() -> ! {
+    synchronous_context_switch(SwitchReason::Exit).expect("can't exit last thread");
+    unreachable!("finished thread continued");
+}
+
+pub fn yield_now() {
+    let _ = synchronous_context_switch(SwitchReason::Yield);
+}
+
+fn synchronous_context_switch(reason: SwitchReason) -> Result<(), ()> {
+    let next = with_scheduler(|s| s.schedule());
+    match next {
+        Some((next_stack_pointer, prev_thread_id)) => unsafe {
+            context_switch::context_switch_to(next_stack_pointer, prev_thread_id, reason);
+            Ok(())
+        },
+        None => Err(()),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn with_scheduler<F, T>(f: F) -> T
+where
+    F: FnOnce(&mut Scheduler) -> T,
+{
+    f(SCHEDULER.lock().get_or_insert_with(Scheduler::new))
+}

src/multitasking/scheduler.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+use super::SwitchReason;
+use crate::multitasking::thread::{Thread, ThreadId};
+use alloc::collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet, VecDeque};
+use core::mem;
+use x86_64::VirtAddr;
+
+pub struct Scheduler {
+    threads: BTreeMap<ThreadId, Thread>,
+    idle_thread_id: Option<ThreadId>,
+    current_thread_id: ThreadId,
+    paused_threads: VecDeque<ThreadId>,
+    blocked_threads: BTreeSet<ThreadId>,
+    wakeups: BTreeSet<ThreadId>,
+}
+
+impl Scheduler {
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        let root_thread = Thread::create_root_thread();
+        let root_id = root_thread.id();
+        let mut threads = BTreeMap::new();
+        threads
+            .insert(root_id, root_thread)
+            .expect_none("map is not empty after creation");
+        Scheduler {
+            threads,
+            current_thread_id: root_id,
+            paused_threads: VecDeque::new(),
+            blocked_threads: BTreeSet::new(),
+            wakeups: BTreeSet::new(),
+            idle_thread_id: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn next_thread(&mut self) -> Option<ThreadId> {
+        self.paused_threads.pop_front()
+    }
+
+    pub fn schedule(&mut self) -> Option<(VirtAddr, ThreadId)> {
+        let mut next_thread_id = self.next_thread();
+        if next_thread_id.is_none() && Some(self.current_thread_id) != self.idle_thread_id {
+            next_thread_id = self.idle_thread_id
+        }
+        if let Some(next_id) = next_thread_id {
+            let next_thread = self
+                .threads
+                .get_mut(&next_id)
+                .expect("next thread does not exist");
+            let next_stack_pointer = next_thread
+                .stack_pointer()
+                .take()
+                .expect("paused thread has no stack pointer");
+            let prev_thread_id = mem::replace(&mut self.current_thread_id, next_thread.id());
+            Some((next_stack_pointer, prev_thread_id))
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn add_paused_thread(
+        &mut self,
+        paused_stack_pointer: VirtAddr,
+        paused_thread_id: ThreadId,
+        switch_reason: SwitchReason,
+    ) {
+        let paused_thread = self
+            .threads
+            .get_mut(&paused_thread_id)
+            .expect("paused thread does not exist");
+        paused_thread
+            .stack_pointer()
+            .replace(paused_stack_pointer)
+            .expect_none("running thread should have stack pointer set to None");
+        if Some(paused_thread_id) == self.idle_thread_id {
+            return; // do nothing
+        }
+        match switch_reason {
+            SwitchReason::Paused | SwitchReason::Yield => {
+                self.paused_threads.push_back(paused_thread_id)
+            }
+            SwitchReason::Blocked => {
+                self.blocked_threads.insert(paused_thread_id);
+                self.check_for_wakeup(paused_thread_id);
+            }
+            SwitchReason::Exit => {
+                let thread = self
+                    .threads
+                    .remove(&paused_thread_id)
+                    .expect("thread not found");
+                // TODO: free stack memory again
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn add_new_thread(&mut self, thread: Thread) {
+        let thread_id = thread.id();
+        self.threads
+            .insert(thread_id, thread)
+            .expect_none("thread already exists");
+        self.paused_threads.push_back(thread_id);
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_idle_thread(&mut self, thread: Thread) {
+        let thread_id = thread.id();
+        self.threads
+            .insert(thread_id, thread)
+            .expect_none("thread already exists");
+        self.idle_thread_id
+            .replace(thread_id)
+            .expect_none("idle thread should be set only once");
+    }
+
+    pub fn current_thread_id(&self) -> ThreadId {
+        self.current_thread_id
+    }
+
+    fn check_for_wakeup(&mut self, thread_id: ThreadId) {
+        if self.wakeups.remove(&thread_id) {
+            assert!(self.blocked_threads.remove(&thread_id));
+            self.paused_threads.push_back(thread_id);
+        }
+    }
+}

src/multitasking/thread.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+use crate::memory::{alloc_stack, StackBounds};
+use crate::multitasking::context_switch::Stack;
+use alloc::boxed::Box;
+use x86_64::{
+    structures::paging::{mapper, FrameAllocator, Mapper, Size4KiB},
+    VirtAddr,
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
+pub struct ThreadId(u64);
+
+impl ThreadId {
+    pub fn as_u64(&self) -> u64 {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    fn new() -> Self {
+        use core::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+        static NEXT_THREAD_ID: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(1);
+        ThreadId(NEXT_THREAD_ID.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Thread {
+    id: ThreadId,
+    stack_pointer: Option<VirtAddr>,
+    stack_bounds: Option<StackBounds>,
+}
+
+impl Thread {
+    pub fn create(
+        entry_point: fn() -> !,
+        stack_size: u64,
+        mapper: &mut impl Mapper<Size4KiB>,
+        frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
+    ) -> Result<Self, mapper::MapToError> {
+        let stack_bounds = alloc_stack(stack_size, mapper, frame_allocator)?;
+        let mut stack = unsafe { Stack::new(stack_bounds.end()) };
+        stack.set_up_for_entry_point(entry_point);
+        Ok(Self::new(stack.get_stack_pointer(), stack_bounds))
+    }
+
+    pub fn create_from_closure<F>(
+        closure: F,
+        stack_size: u64,
+        mapper: &mut impl Mapper<Size4KiB>,
+        frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
+    ) -> Result<Self, mapper::MapToError>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce() -> ! + 'static + Send + Sync,
+    {
+        let stack_bounds = alloc_stack(stack_size, mapper, frame_allocator)?;
+        let mut stack = unsafe { Stack::new(stack_bounds.end()) };
+        stack.set_up_for_closure(Box::new(closure));
+        Ok(Self::new(stack.get_stack_pointer(), stack_bounds))
+    }
+
+    fn new(stack_pointer: VirtAddr, stack_bounds: StackBounds) -> Self {
+        Thread {
+            id: ThreadId::new(),
+            stack_pointer: Some(stack_pointer),
+            stack_bounds: Some(stack_bounds),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn create_root_thread() -> Self {
+        Thread {
+            id: ThreadId(0),
+            stack_pointer: None,
+            stack_bounds: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn id(&self) -> ThreadId {
+        self.id
+    }
+
+    pub(super) fn stack_pointer(&mut self) -> &mut Option<VirtAddr> {
+        &mut self.stack_pointer
+    }
+}

src/serial.rs

@@ -13,10 +13,14 @@ lazy_static! {
 #[doc(hidden)]
 pub fn _print(args: ::core::fmt::Arguments) {
     use core::fmt::Write;
-    SERIAL1
+    use x86_64::instructions::interrupts;
-        .lock()
+
-        .write_fmt(args)
+    interrupts::without_interrupts(|| {
-        .expect("Printing to serial failed");
+        SERIAL1
+            .lock()
+            .write_fmt(args)
+            .expect("Printing to serial failed");
+    });
 }
 
 /// Prints to the host through the serial interface.

src/vga_buffer.rs

@@ -166,11 +166,16 @@ macro_rules! println {
     ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::print!("{}\n", format_args!($($arg)*)));
 }
 
-/// Prints the given formatted string to the VGA text buffer through the global `WRITER` instance.
+/// Prints the given formatted string to the VGA text buffer
+/// through the global `WRITER` instance.
 #[doc(hidden)]
 pub fn _print(args: fmt::Arguments) {
     use core::fmt::Write;
-    WRITER.lock().write_fmt(args).unwrap();
+    use x86_64::instructions::interrupts;
+
+    interrupts::without_interrupts(|| {
+        WRITER.lock().write_fmt(args).unwrap();
+    });
 }
 
 #[test_case]
@@ -191,14 +196,20 @@ fn test_println_many() {
 
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_output() {
+    use core::fmt::Write;
+    use x86_64::instructions::interrupts;
+
     serial_print!("test_println_output... ");
 
     let s = "Some test string that fits on a single line";
-    println!("{}", s);
+    interrupts::without_interrupts(|| {
-    for (i, c) in s.chars().enumerate() {
+        let mut writer = WRITER.lock();
-        let screen_char = WRITER.lock().buffer.chars[BUFFER_HEIGHT - 2][i].read();
+        writeln!(writer, "\n{}", s).expect("writeln failed");
-        assert_eq!(char::from(screen_char.ascii_character), c);
+        for (i, c) in s.chars().enumerate() {
-    }
+            let screen_char = writer.buffer.chars[BUFFER_HEIGHT - 2][i].read();
+            assert_eq!(char::from(screen_char.ascii_character), c);
+        }
+    });
 
     serial_println!("[ok]");
 }

tests/heap_allocation.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+#![no_std]
+#![no_main]
+#![feature(custom_test_frameworks)]
+#![test_runner(blog_os::test_runner)]
+#![reexport_test_harness_main = "test_main"]
+
+extern crate alloc;
+
+use alloc::{boxed::Box, vec::Vec};
+use blog_os::{allocator::HEAP_SIZE, serial_print, serial_println};
+use bootloader::{entry_point, BootInfo};
+use core::panic::PanicInfo;
+
+entry_point!(main);
+
+fn main(boot_info: &'static BootInfo) -> ! {
+    use blog_os::allocator;
+    use blog_os::memory::{self, BootInfoFrameAllocator};
+    use x86_64::VirtAddr;
+
+    blog_os::init();
+    let phys_mem_offset = VirtAddr::new(boot_info.physical_memory_offset);
+    let mut mapper = unsafe { memory::init(phys_mem_offset) };
+    let mut frame_allocator = unsafe { BootInfoFrameAllocator::init(&boot_info.memory_map) };
+    allocator::init_heap(&mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator).expect("heap initialization failed");
+
+    test_main();
+    loop {}
+}
+
+#[test_case]
+fn simple_allocation() {
+    serial_print!("simple_allocation... ");
+    let heap_value = Box::new(41);
+    assert_eq!(*heap_value, 41);
+    serial_println!("[ok]");
+}
+
+#[test_case]
+fn large_vec() {
+    serial_print!("large_vec... ");
+    let n = 1000;
+    let mut vec = Vec::new();
+    for i in 0..n {
+        vec.push(i);
+    }
+    assert_eq!(vec.iter().sum::<u64>(), (n - 1) * n / 2);
+    serial_println!("[ok]");
+}
+
+#[test_case]
+fn many_boxes() {
+    serial_print!("many_boxes... ");
+    for i in 0..HEAP_SIZE {
+        let x = Box::new(i);
+        assert_eq!(*x, i);
+    }
+    serial_println!("[ok]");
+}
+
+#[test_case]
+fn many_boxes_long_lived() {
+    serial_print!("many_boxes_long_lived... ");
+    let long_lived = Box::new(1); // new
+    for i in 0..HEAP_SIZE {
+        let x = Box::new(i);
+        assert_eq!(*x, i);
+    }
+    assert_eq!(*long_lived, 1); // new
+    serial_println!("[ok]");
+}
+
+#[panic_handler]
+fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
+    blog_os::test_panic_handler(info)
+}

tests/stack_overflow.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+#![no_std]
+#![no_main]
+#![feature(abi_x86_interrupt)]
+
+use blog_os::{exit_qemu, serial_print, serial_println, QemuExitCode};
+use core::panic::PanicInfo;
+use lazy_static::lazy_static;
+use x86_64::structures::idt::{InterruptDescriptorTable, InterruptStackFrame};
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
+    serial_print!("stack_overflow... ");
+
+    blog_os::gdt::init();
+    init_test_idt();
+
+    // trigger a stack overflow
+    stack_overflow();
+
+    panic!("Execution continued after stack overflow");
+}
+
+#[allow(unconditional_recursion)]
+fn stack_overflow() {
+    stack_overflow(); // for each recursion, the return address is pushed
+}
+
+lazy_static! {
+    static ref TEST_IDT: InterruptDescriptorTable = {
+        let mut idt = InterruptDescriptorTable::new();
+        unsafe {
+            idt.double_fault
+                .set_handler_fn(test_double_fault_handler)
+                .set_stack_index(blog_os::gdt::DOUBLE_FAULT_IST_INDEX);
+        }
+
+        idt
+    };
+}
+
+pub fn init_test_idt() {
+    TEST_IDT.load();
+}
+
+extern "x86-interrupt" fn test_double_fault_handler(
+    _stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame,
+    _error_code: u64,
+) -> ! {
+    serial_println!("[ok]");
+    exit_qemu(QemuExitCode::Success);
+    loop {}
+}
+
+#[panic_handler]
+fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
+    blog_os::test_panic_handler(info)
+}