Shift lines up instead of clearing the screen when full

Force unlock the Writer on panic
Don't panic on unknown pixel formats
2025-12-16 14:27:49 +00:00 · 2020-09-09 19:00:51 +02:00 · 2020-09-09 16:35:52 +02:00 · 2020-09-09 16:35:29 +02:00 · 2020-09-09 15:31:43 +02:00 · 2020-08-16 18:03:10 +02:00
24 changed files with 1607 additions and 236 deletions
--- a/.cargo/config.toml
+++ b/.cargo/config.toml
@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@
 [unstable]
-build-std = ["core", "compiler_builtins"]
+# TODO: uncomment once https://github.com/rust-lang/cargo/issues/8687 is resolved
 # build-std = ["core", "alloc"]
 [build]
-target = "x86_64-blog_os.json"
+# TODO: uncomment once https://github.com/rust-lang/cargo/issues/8687 is resolved
 # target = "x86_64-blog_os.json"
 [target.'cfg(target_os = "none")']
-runner = "bootimage runner"
+runner = "cargo run --package disk_image --bin runner --quiet"
 [alias]
 xrun = "run --target x86_64-blog_os.json -Zbuild-std=core,alloc"
 bootimage = "run --package disk_image --bin disk_image --quiet"
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -1,5 +1,17 @@
 # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo.
 # It is not intended for manual editing.
 [[package]]
 name = "anyhow"
 version = "1.0.32"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6b602bfe940d21c130f3895acd65221e8a61270debe89d628b9cb4e3ccb8569b"
 [[package]]
 name = "autocfg"
 version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f8aac770f1885fd7e387acedd76065302551364496e46b3dd00860b2f8359b9d"
 [[package]]
 name = "bit_field"
 version = "0.9.0"
@@ -17,7 +29,14 @@ name = "blog_os"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
 "bootloader",
 "conquer-once",
 "crossbeam-queue",
 "font8x8",
 "futures-util",
 "lazy_static",
 "linked_list_allocator",
 "pc-keyboard",
 "pic8259_simple",
 "rlibc",
 "spin",
 "uart_16550",
@@ -28,8 +47,107 @@ dependencies = [
 [[package]]
 name = "bootloader"
 version = "0.9.8"
 [[package]]
 name = "bootloader-locator"
 version = "0.0.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "0ad686b9b47363de7d36c05fb6885f17d08d0f2d15b1bc782a101fe3c94a2c7c"
+checksum = "aaaa9db3339d32c2622f2e5d0731eb82a468d3439797c9d4fe426744fe2bd551"
 dependencies = [
 "json",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "cfg-if"
 version = "0.1.10"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "4785bdd1c96b2a846b2bd7cc02e86b6b3dbf14e7e53446c4f54c92a361040822"
 [[package]]
 name = "conquer-once"
 version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "96eb12fb69466716fbae9009d389e6a30830ae8975e170eff2d2cff579f9efa3"
 dependencies = [
 "conquer-util",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "conquer-util"
 version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "654fb2472cc369d311c547103a1fa81d467bef370ae7a0680f65939895b1182a"
 [[package]]
 name = "cpuio"
 version = "0.3.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "d531514efb06912141fa65967447de805691b685a7565c87d1765afe34a98aa7"
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-queue"
 version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c695eeca1e7173472a32221542ae469b3e9aac3a4fc81f7696bcad82029493db"
 dependencies = [
 "cfg-if",
 "crossbeam-utils",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "crossbeam-utils"
 version = "0.7.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c3c7c73a2d1e9fc0886a08b93e98eb643461230d5f1925e4036204d5f2e261a8"
 dependencies = [
 "autocfg",
 "cfg-if",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "disk_image"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
 "anyhow",
 "bootloader-locator",
 "locate-cargo-manifest",
 "runner-utils",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "font8x8"
 version = "0.2.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "44226c40489fb1d602344a1d8f1b544570c3435e396dda1eda7b5ef010d8f1be"
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-core"
 version = "0.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "f25592f769825e89b92358db00d26f965761e094951ac44d3663ef25b7ac464a"
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-task"
 version = "0.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "7b0a34e53cf6cdcd0178aa573aed466b646eb3db769570841fda0c7ede375a27"
 [[package]]
 name = "futures-util"
 version = "0.3.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "22766cf25d64306bedf0384da004d05c9974ab104fcc4528f1236181c18004c5"
 dependencies = [
 "futures-core",
 "futures-task",
 "pin-utils",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "json"
 version = "0.12.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "078e285eafdfb6c4b434e0d31e8cfcb5115b651496faca5749b88fafd4f23bfd"
 [[package]]
 name = "lazy_static"
@@ -40,18 +158,146 @@ dependencies = [
 "spin",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "libc"
 version = "0.2.76"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "755456fae044e6fa1ebbbd1b3e902ae19e73097ed4ed87bb79934a867c007bc3"
 [[package]]
 name = "linked_list_allocator"
 version = "0.8.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "18c618c431dfe4419afbe22852f6aceffbc17bd82ba0a18b982def291000824c"
 dependencies = [
 "spinning_top",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "locate-cargo-manifest"
 version = "0.2.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "db985b63431fe09e8d71f50aeceffcc31e720cb86be8dad2f38d084c5a328466"
 dependencies = [
 "json",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "lock_api"
 version = "0.3.3"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "79b2de95ecb4691949fea4716ca53cdbcfccb2c612e19644a8bad05edcf9f47b"
 dependencies = [
 "scopeguard",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "pc-keyboard"
 version = "0.5.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c48392db76c4e9a69e0b3be356c5f97ebb7b14413c5e4fd0af4755dbf86e2fce"
 [[package]]
 name = "pic8259_simple"
 version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "af2a5497fb8e59bf8015f67b7dff238d75ef445e03f23edac24ac3a8f09be952"
 dependencies = [
 "cpuio",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "pin-utils"
 version = "0.1.0-alpha.4"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "5894c618ce612a3fa23881b152b608bafb8c56cfc22f434a3ba3120b40f7b587"
 [[package]]
 name = "proc-macro2"
 version = "1.0.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "175c513d55719db99da20232b06cda8bab6b83ec2d04e3283edf0213c37c1a29"
 dependencies = [
 "unicode-xid",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "quote"
 version = "1.0.7"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "aa563d17ecb180e500da1cfd2b028310ac758de548efdd203e18f283af693f37"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "rlibc"
 version = "1.0.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "fc874b127765f014d792f16763a81245ab80500e2ad921ed4ee9e82481ee08fe"
 [[package]]
 name = "runner-utils"
 version = "0.0.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "c9dc6848b056990cd51e72aa5556bdbea4a96013e8b18635d183c84159c2988f"
 dependencies = [
 "thiserror",
 "wait-timeout",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "scopeguard"
 version = "1.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "d29ab0c6d3fc0ee92fe66e2d99f700eab17a8d57d1c1d3b748380fb20baa78cd"
 [[package]]
 name = "spin"
 version = "0.5.2"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "6e63cff320ae2c57904679ba7cb63280a3dc4613885beafb148ee7bf9aa9042d"
 [[package]]
 name = "spinning_top"
 version = "0.1.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "32d801a3a53bcf5071f85fef8d5cab9e5f638fc5580a37e6eb7aba4b37438d24"
 dependencies = [
 "lock_api",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "syn"
 version = "1.0.40"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "963f7d3cc59b59b9325165add223142bbf1df27655d07789f109896d353d8350"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
 "unicode-xid",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror"
 version = "1.0.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "7dfdd070ccd8ccb78f4ad66bf1982dc37f620ef696c6b5028fe2ed83dd3d0d08"
 dependencies = [
 "thiserror-impl",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "thiserror-impl"
 version = "1.0.20"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "bd80fc12f73063ac132ac92aceea36734f04a1d93c1240c6944e23a3b8841793"
 dependencies = [
 "proc-macro2",
 "quote",
 "syn",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "uart_16550"
 version = "0.2.7"
@@ -63,16 +309,29 @@ dependencies = [
 ]
 [[package]]
-name = "volatile"
+name = "unicode-xid"
-version = "0.2.6"
+version = "0.2.1"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "6af0edf5b4faacc31fc51159244d78d65ec580f021afcef7bd53c04aeabc7f29"
+checksum = "f7fe0bb3479651439c9112f72b6c505038574c9fbb575ed1bf3b797fa39dd564"
 [[package]]
 name = "volatile"
 version = "0.3.0"
 [[package]]
 name = "wait-timeout"
 version = "0.2.0"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
 checksum = "9f200f5b12eb75f8c1ed65abd4b2db8a6e1b138a20de009dacee265a2498f3f6"
 dependencies = [
 "libc",
 ]
 [[package]]
 name = "x86_64"
-version = "0.11.0"
+version = "0.11.5"
 source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index"
-checksum = "365de37eb7c6da582cbb510dd0f3f1235d24ff6309a8a96e8a9909cc9bfd608f"
+checksum = "7c6e9604d08cf91ba0e5cc2175e8cbbdeeb2b8230b818fd9052604c4c5ffd620"
 dependencies = [
 "bit_field",
 "bitflags",
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -4,6 +4,11 @@ version = "0.1.0"
 authors = ["Philipp Oppermann <dev@phil-opp.com>"]
 edition = "2018"
 [workspace]
 members = [
    "disk_image",
 ]
 [[test]]
 name = "should_panic"
 harness = false
@@ -13,21 +18,34 @@ name = "stack_overflow"
 harness = false
 [dependencies]
-bootloader = "0.9.8"
+bootloader = { path = "../../uefi-test"}
 rlibc = "1.0.0"
 volatile = "0.2.6"
 spin = "0.5.2"
 x86_64 = "0.11.0"
 uart_16550 = "0.2.0"
 pic8259_simple = "0.2.0"
 pc-keyboard = "0.5.0"
 linked_list_allocator = "0.8.0"
 volatile = { path= "../../volatile", features = ["unstable"] }
 font8x8 = { version = "0.2.5", default-features = false, features = ["unicode"]}
 [dependencies.lazy_static]
 version = "1.0"
 features = ["spin_no_std"]
 [dependencies.crossbeam-queue]
 version = "0.2.1"
 default-features = false
 features = ["alloc"]
-[package.metadata.bootimage]
+[dependencies.conquer-once]
-test-args = [
+version = "0.2.1"
-    "-device", "isa-debug-exit,iobase=0xf4,iosize=0x04", "-serial", "stdio",
+default-features = false
-    "-display", "none"
+
-]
+[dependencies.futures-util]
-test-success-exit-code = 33         # (0x10 << 1) | 1
+version = "0.3.4"
 default-features = false
 features = ["alloc"]
 [package.metadata.bootloader]
 map-physical-memory = true
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
-# Blog OS (Double Faults)
+# Blog OS (Async/Await)
-[![Build Status](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/workflows/Build%20Code/badge.svg?branch=post-06)](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/actions?query=workflow%3A%22Build+Code%22+branch%3Apost-06)
+[![Build Status](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/workflows/Build%20Code/badge.svg?branch=post-12)](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/actions?query=workflow%3A%22Build+Code%22+branch%3Apost-12)
-This repository contains the source code for the [Double Faults][post] post of the [Writing an OS in Rust](https://os.phil-opp.com) series.
+This repository contains the source code for the [Async/Await][post] post of the [Writing an OS in Rust](https://os.phil-opp.com) series.
-[post]: https://os.phil-opp.com/double-fault-exceptions/
+[post]: https://os.phil-opp.com/async-await/
 **Check out the [master branch](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os) for more information.**
--- a/disk_image/Cargo.toml
+++ b/disk_image/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
 [package]
 name = "disk_image"
 version = "0.1.0"
 authors = ["Philipp Oppermann <dev@phil-opp.com>"]
 edition = "2018"
 # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html
 [dependencies]
 anyhow = "1.0.32"
 bootloader-locator = "0.0.4"
 runner-utils = "0.0.2"
 locate-cargo-manifest = "0.2.0"
--- a/disk_image/src/bin/runner.rs
+++ b/disk_image/src/bin/runner.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
 use anyhow::anyhow;
 use std::{
    path::PathBuf,
    process::{Command, ExitStatus},
    time::Duration,
 };
 const RUN_ARGS: &[&str] = &["-d", "int", "--no-reboot", "-s"];
 const TEST_ARGS: &[&str] = &[
    "-device",
    "isa-debug-exit,iobase=0xf4,iosize=0x04",
    "-serial",
    "stdio",
    "-display",
    "none",
    "--no-reboot",
 ];
 const TEST_TIMEOUT_SECS: u64 = 10;
 fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let kernel_binary_path = {
        let path = PathBuf::from(std::env::args().nth(1).unwrap());
        path.canonicalize()?
    };
    let disk_image = disk_image::create_disk_image(&kernel_binary_path, true)?;
    let mut run_cmd = Command::new("qemu-system-x86_64");
    run_cmd
        .arg("-drive")
        .arg(format!("format=raw,file={}", disk_image.display()));
    let binary_kind = runner_utils::binary_kind(&kernel_binary_path);
    if binary_kind.is_test() {
        run_cmd.args(TEST_ARGS);
        let exit_status = run_test_command(run_cmd)?;
        match exit_status.code() {
            Some(33) => {} // success
            other => return Err(anyhow!("Test failed (exit code: {:?})", other)),
        }
    } else {
        run_cmd.args(RUN_ARGS);
        let exit_status = run_cmd.status()?;
        if !exit_status.success() {
            std::process::exit(exit_status.code().unwrap_or(1));
        }
    }
    Ok(())
 }
 fn run_test_command(mut cmd: Command) -> anyhow::Result<ExitStatus> {
    let status = runner_utils::run_with_timeout(&mut cmd, Duration::from_secs(TEST_TIMEOUT_SECS))?;
    Ok(status)
 }
--- a/disk_image/src/lib.rs
+++ b/disk_image/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
 use anyhow::anyhow;
 use std::{
    path::{Path, PathBuf},
    process::Command,
 };
 pub fn create_disk_image(kernel_binary_path: &Path, bios_only: bool) -> anyhow::Result<PathBuf> {
    let bootloader_manifest_path = bootloader_locator::locate_bootloader("bootloader")?;
    let kernel_manifest_path = locate_cargo_manifest::locate_manifest()?;
    let mut build_cmd = Command::new(env!("CARGO"));
    build_cmd.current_dir(bootloader_manifest_path.parent().unwrap());
    build_cmd.arg("builder");
    build_cmd
        .arg("--kernel-manifest")
        .arg(&kernel_manifest_path);
    build_cmd.arg("--kernel-binary").arg(&kernel_binary_path);
    build_cmd
        .arg("--target-dir")
        .arg(kernel_manifest_path.parent().unwrap().join("target"));
    build_cmd
        .arg("--out-dir")
        .arg(kernel_binary_path.parent().unwrap());
    build_cmd.arg("--quiet");
    if bios_only {
        build_cmd.arg("--firmware").arg("bios");
    }
    if !build_cmd.status()?.success() {
        return Err(anyhow!("build failed"));
    }
    let kernel_binary_name = kernel_binary_path.file_name().unwrap().to_str().unwrap();
    let disk_image = kernel_binary_path
        .parent()
        .unwrap()
        .join(format!("bootimage-bios-{}.bin", kernel_binary_name));
    if !disk_image.exists() {
        return Err(anyhow!(
            "Disk image does not exist at {} after bootloader build",
            disk_image.display()
        ));
    }
    Ok(disk_image)
 }
--- a/disk_image/src/main.rs
+++ b/disk_image/src/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
 use anyhow::anyhow;
 use std::process::Command;
 const TARGET_NAME: &str = "x86_64-blog_os";
 const KERNEL_BINARIES: &[&str] = &["blog_os"];
 fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    // build all binaries
    let mut build_cmd = Command::new(env!("CARGO"));
    build_cmd.arg("build");
    build_cmd.arg("--release");
    build_cmd.arg("-Zbuild-std=core");
    build_cmd
        .arg("--target")
        .arg(format!("{}.json", TARGET_NAME));
    if !build_cmd.status()?.success() {
        return Err(anyhow!("build failed"));
    };
    let kernel_manifest = locate_cargo_manifest::locate_manifest()?;
    let target_dir_root = kernel_manifest.parent().unwrap().join("target");
    let target_dir = target_dir_root.join(TARGET_NAME).join("release");
    for binary_name in KERNEL_BINARIES {
        let binary_path = {
            let path = target_dir.join(binary_name);
            path.canonicalize()?
        };
        let disk_image = disk_image::create_disk_image(&binary_path, false)?;
        println!(
            "Created disk image for binary {} at {}",
            binary_name,
            disk_image.display()
        );
    }
    Ok(())
 }
--- a/src/allocator.rs
+++ b/src/allocator.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
 use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
 use core::ptr::null_mut;
 use fixed_size_block::FixedSizeBlockAllocator;
 use x86_64::{
    structures::paging::{
        mapper::MapToError, FrameAllocator, Mapper, Page, PageTableFlags, Size4KiB,
    },
    VirtAddr,
 };
 pub mod bump;
 pub mod fixed_size_block;
 pub mod linked_list;
 pub const HEAP_START: usize = 0x_4444_4444_0000;
 pub const HEAP_SIZE: usize = 100 * 1024; // 100 KiB
 #[global_allocator]
 static ALLOCATOR: Locked<FixedSizeBlockAllocator> = Locked::new(FixedSizeBlockAllocator::new());
 pub fn init_heap(
    mapper: &mut impl Mapper<Size4KiB>,
    frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
 ) -> Result<(), MapToError<Size4KiB>> {
    let page_range = {
        let heap_start = VirtAddr::new(HEAP_START as u64);
        let heap_end = heap_start + HEAP_SIZE - 1u64;
        let heap_start_page = Page::containing_address(heap_start);
        let heap_end_page = Page::containing_address(heap_end);
        Page::range_inclusive(heap_start_page, heap_end_page)
    };
    for page in page_range {
        let frame = frame_allocator
            .allocate_frame()
            .ok_or(MapToError::FrameAllocationFailed)?;
        let flags = PageTableFlags::PRESENT | PageTableFlags::WRITABLE;
        unsafe { mapper.map_to(page, frame, flags, frame_allocator)?.flush() };
    }
    unsafe {
        ALLOCATOR.lock().init(HEAP_START, HEAP_SIZE);
    }
    Ok(())
 }
 pub struct Dummy;
 unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Dummy {
    unsafe fn alloc(&self, _layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
        null_mut()
    }
    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, _ptr: *mut u8, _layout: Layout) {
        panic!("dealloc should be never called")
    }
 }
 /// A wrapper around spin::Mutex to permit trait implementations.
 pub struct Locked<A> {
    inner: spin::Mutex<A>,
 }
 impl<A> Locked<A> {
    pub const fn new(inner: A) -> Self {
        Locked {
            inner: spin::Mutex::new(inner),
        }
    }
    pub fn lock(&self) -> spin::MutexGuard<A> {
        self.inner.lock()
    }
 }
 /// Align the given address `addr` upwards to alignment `align`.
 ///
 /// Requires that `align` is a power of two.
 fn align_up(addr: usize, align: usize) -> usize {
    (addr + align - 1) & !(align - 1)
 }
--- a/src/allocator/bump.rs
+++ b/src/allocator/bump.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
 use super::{align_up, Locked};
 use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
 use core::ptr;
 pub struct BumpAllocator {
    heap_start: usize,
    heap_end: usize,
    next: usize,
    allocations: usize,
 }
 impl BumpAllocator {
    /// Creates a new empty bump allocator.
    pub const fn new() -> Self {
        BumpAllocator {
            heap_start: 0,
            heap_end: 0,
            next: 0,
            allocations: 0,
        }
    }
    /// Initializes the bump allocator with the given heap bounds.
    ///
    /// This method is unsafe because the caller must ensure that the given
    /// memory range is unused. Also, this method must be called only once.
    pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) {
        self.heap_start = heap_start;
        self.heap_end = heap_start.saturating_add(heap_size);
        self.next = heap_start;
    }
 }
 unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked<BumpAllocator> {
    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
        let mut bump = self.lock(); // get a mutable reference
        let alloc_start = align_up(bump.next, layout.align());
        let alloc_end = match alloc_start.checked_add(layout.size()) {
            Some(end) => end,
            None => return ptr::null_mut(),
        };
        if alloc_end > bump.heap_end {
            ptr::null_mut() // out of memory
        } else {
            bump.next = alloc_end;
            bump.allocations += 1;
            alloc_start as *mut u8
        }
    }
    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, _ptr: *mut u8, _layout: Layout) {
        let mut bump = self.lock(); // get a mutable reference
        bump.allocations -= 1;
        if bump.allocations == 0 {
            bump.next = bump.heap_start;
        }
    }
 }
--- a/src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs
+++ b/src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
 use super::Locked;
 use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
 use core::{
    mem,
    ptr::{self, NonNull},
 };
 /// The block sizes to use.
 ///
 /// The sizes must each be power of 2 because they are also used as
 /// the block alignment (alignments must be always powers of 2).
 const BLOCK_SIZES: &[usize] = &[8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048];
 /// Choose an appropriate block size for the given layout.
 ///
 /// Returns an index into the `BLOCK_SIZES` array.
 fn list_index(layout: &Layout) -> Option<usize> {
    let required_block_size = layout.size().max(layout.align());
    BLOCK_SIZES.iter().position(|&s| s >= required_block_size)
 }
 struct ListNode {
    next: Option<&'static mut ListNode>,
 }
 pub struct FixedSizeBlockAllocator {
    list_heads: [Option<&'static mut ListNode>; BLOCK_SIZES.len()],
    fallback_allocator: linked_list_allocator::Heap,
 }
 impl FixedSizeBlockAllocator {
    /// Creates an empty FixedSizeBlockAllocator.
    pub const fn new() -> Self {
        FixedSizeBlockAllocator {
            list_heads: [None; BLOCK_SIZES.len()],
            fallback_allocator: linked_list_allocator::Heap::empty(),
        }
    }
    /// Initialize the allocator with the given heap bounds.
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the given
    /// heap bounds are valid and that the heap is unused. This method must be
    /// called only once.
    pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) {
        self.fallback_allocator.init(heap_start, heap_size);
    }
    /// Allocates using the fallback allocator.
    fn fallback_alloc(&mut self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
        match self.fallback_allocator.allocate_first_fit(layout) {
            Ok(ptr) => ptr.as_ptr(),
            Err(_) => ptr::null_mut(),
        }
    }
 }
 unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked<FixedSizeBlockAllocator> {
    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
        let mut allocator = self.lock();
        match list_index(&layout) {
            Some(index) => {
                match allocator.list_heads[index].take() {
                    Some(node) => {
                        allocator.list_heads[index] = node.next.take();
                        node as *mut ListNode as *mut u8
                    }
                    None => {
                        // no block exists in list => allocate new block
                        let block_size = BLOCK_SIZES[index];
                        // only works if all block sizes are a power of 2
                        let block_align = block_size;
                        let layout = Layout::from_size_align(block_size, block_align).unwrap();
                        allocator.fallback_alloc(layout)
                    }
                }
            }
            None => allocator.fallback_alloc(layout),
        }
    }
    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) {
        let mut allocator = self.lock();
        match list_index(&layout) {
            Some(index) => {
                let new_node = ListNode {
                    next: allocator.list_heads[index].take(),
                };
                // verify that block has size and alignment required for storing node
                assert!(mem::size_of::<ListNode>() <= BLOCK_SIZES[index]);
                assert!(mem::align_of::<ListNode>() <= BLOCK_SIZES[index]);
                let new_node_ptr = ptr as *mut ListNode;
                new_node_ptr.write(new_node);
                allocator.list_heads[index] = Some(&mut *new_node_ptr);
            }
            None => {
                let ptr = NonNull::new(ptr).unwrap();
                allocator.fallback_allocator.deallocate(ptr, layout);
            }
        }
    }
 }
--- a/src/allocator/linked_list.rs
+++ b/src/allocator/linked_list.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
 use super::{align_up, Locked};
 use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout};
 use core::{mem, ptr};
 struct ListNode {
    size: usize,
    next: Option<&'static mut ListNode>,
 }
 impl ListNode {
    const fn new(size: usize) -> Self {
        ListNode { size, next: None }
    }
    fn start_addr(&self) -> usize {
        self as *const Self as usize
    }
    fn end_addr(&self) -> usize {
        self.start_addr() + self.size
    }
 }
 pub struct LinkedListAllocator {
    head: ListNode,
 }
 impl LinkedListAllocator {
    /// Creates an empty LinkedListAllocator.
    pub const fn new() -> Self {
        Self {
            head: ListNode::new(0),
        }
    }
    /// Initialize the allocator with the given heap bounds.
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the given
    /// heap bounds are valid and that the heap is unused. This method must be
    /// called only once.
    pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) {
        self.add_free_region(heap_start, heap_size);
    }
    /// Adds the given memory region to the front of the list.
    unsafe fn add_free_region(&mut self, addr: usize, size: usize) {
        // ensure that the freed region is capable of holding ListNode
        assert_eq!(align_up(addr, mem::align_of::<ListNode>()), addr);
        assert!(size >= mem::size_of::<ListNode>());
        // create a new list node and append it at the start of the list
        let mut node = ListNode::new(size);
        node.next = self.head.next.take();
        let node_ptr = addr as *mut ListNode;
        node_ptr.write(node);
        self.head.next = Some(&mut *node_ptr)
    }
    /// Looks for a free region with the given size and alignment and removes
    /// it from the list.
    ///
    /// Returns a tuple of the list node and the start address of the allocation.
    fn find_region(&mut self, size: usize, align: usize) -> Option<(&'static mut ListNode, usize)> {
        // reference to current list node, updated for each iteration
        let mut current = &mut self.head;
        // look for a large enough memory region in linked list
        while let Some(ref mut region) = current.next {
            if let Ok(alloc_start) = Self::alloc_from_region(&region, size, align) {
                // region suitable for allocation -> remove node from list
                let next = region.next.take();
                let ret = Some((current.next.take().unwrap(), alloc_start));
                current.next = next;
                return ret;
            } else {
                // region not suitable -> continue with next region
                current = current.next.as_mut().unwrap();
            }
        }
        // no suitable region found
        None
    }
    /// Try to use the given region for an allocation with given size and alignment.
    ///
    /// Returns the allocation start address on success.
    fn alloc_from_region(region: &ListNode, size: usize, align: usize) -> Result<usize, ()> {
        let alloc_start = align_up(region.start_addr(), align);
        let alloc_end = alloc_start.checked_add(size).ok_or(())?;
        if alloc_end > region.end_addr() {
            // region too small
            return Err(());
        }
        let excess_size = region.end_addr() - alloc_end;
        if excess_size > 0 && excess_size < mem::size_of::<ListNode>() {
            // rest of region too small to hold a ListNode (required because the
            // allocation splits the region in a used and a free part)
            return Err(());
        }
        // region suitable for allocation
        Ok(alloc_start)
    }
    /// Adjust the given layout so that the resulting allocated memory
    /// region is also capable of storing a `ListNode`.
    ///
    /// Returns the adjusted size and alignment as a (size, align) tuple.
    fn size_align(layout: Layout) -> (usize, usize) {
        let layout = layout
            .align_to(mem::align_of::<ListNode>())
            .expect("adjusting alignment failed")
            .pad_to_align();
        let size = layout.size().max(mem::size_of::<ListNode>());
        (size, layout.align())
    }
 }
 unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked<LinkedListAllocator> {
    unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 {
        // perform layout adjustments
        let (size, align) = LinkedListAllocator::size_align(layout);
        let mut allocator = self.lock();
        if let Some((region, alloc_start)) = allocator.find_region(size, align) {
            let alloc_end = alloc_start.checked_add(size).expect("overflow");
            let excess_size = region.end_addr() - alloc_end;
            if excess_size > 0 {
                allocator.add_free_region(alloc_end, excess_size);
            }
            alloc_start as *mut u8
        } else {
            ptr::null_mut()
        }
    }
    unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) {
        // perform layout adjustments
        let (size, _) = LinkedListAllocator::size_align(layout);
        self.lock().add_free_region(ptr as usize, size)
    }
 }
--- a/src/framebuffer.rs
+++ b/src/framebuffer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,179 @@
 use bootloader::boot_info::PixelFormat;
 use core::{fmt, slice};
 use font8x8::UnicodeFonts;
 use spin::Mutex;
 use volatile::Volatile;
 pub static WRITER: Mutex<Option<Writer>> = Mutex::new(None);
 pub fn init(framebuffer: &'static mut bootloader::boot_info::FrameBuffer) {
    let mut writer = Writer {
        info: framebuffer.info(),
        buffer: Volatile::new(framebuffer.buffer()),
        x_pos: 0,
        y_pos: 0,
    };
    writer.clear();
    // global writer should not be locked here
    let mut global_writer = WRITER.try_lock().unwrap();
    assert!(global_writer.is_none(), "Global writer already initialized");
    *global_writer = Some(writer);
 }
 pub struct Writer {
    buffer: Volatile<&'static mut [u8]>,
    info: bootloader::boot_info::FrameBufferInfo,
    x_pos: usize,
    y_pos: usize,
 }
 impl Writer {
    fn newline(&mut self) {
        self.y_pos += 8;
        self.carriage_return();
    }
    fn carriage_return(&mut self) {
        self.x_pos = 0;
    }
    /// Erases all text on the screen
    pub fn clear(&mut self) {
        self.x_pos = 0;
        self.y_pos = 0;
        self.buffer.fill(0);
    }
    fn shift_lines_up(&mut self) {
        let offset = self.info.stride * self.info.bytes_per_pixel * 8;
        self.buffer.copy_within(offset.., 0);
        self.y_pos -= 8;
    }
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        self.info.horizontal_resolution
    }
    fn height(&self) -> usize {
        self.info.vertical_resolution
    }
    fn write_char(&mut self, c: char) {
        match c {
            '\n' => self.newline(),
            '\r' => self.carriage_return(),
            c => {
                if self.x_pos >= self.width() {
                    self.newline();
                }
                while self.y_pos >= (self.height() - 8) {
                    self.shift_lines_up();
                }
                let rendered = font8x8::BASIC_FONTS
                    .get(c)
                    .expect("character not found in basic font");
                self.write_rendered_char(rendered);
            }
        }
    }
    fn write_rendered_char(&mut self, rendered_char: [u8; 8]) {
        for (y, byte) in rendered_char.iter().enumerate() {
            for (x, bit) in (0..8).enumerate() {
                let on = *byte & (1 << bit) != 0;
                self.write_pixel(self.x_pos + x, self.y_pos + y, on);
            }
        }
        self.x_pos += 8;
    }
    fn write_pixel(&mut self, x: usize, y: usize, on: bool) {
        let pixel_offset = y * self.info.stride + x;
        let color = if on {
            match self.info.pixel_format {
                PixelFormat::RGB => [0x33, 0xff, 0x66, 0],
                PixelFormat::BGR => [0x66, 0xff, 0x33, 0],
                _other => [0xff, 0xff, 0xff, 0],
            }
        } else {
            [0, 0, 0, 0]
        };
        let bytes_per_pixel = self.info.bytes_per_pixel;
        let byte_offset = pixel_offset * bytes_per_pixel;
        self.buffer
            .index_mut(byte_offset..(byte_offset + bytes_per_pixel))
            .copy_from_slice(&color[..bytes_per_pixel]);
    }
    /// Writes the given ASCII string to the buffer.
    ///
    /// Wraps lines at `BUFFER_WIDTH`. Supports the `\n` newline character. Does **not**
    /// support strings with non-ASCII characters, since they can't be printed in the VGA text
    /// mode.
    fn write_string(&mut self, s: &str) {
        for char in s.chars() {
            self.write_char(char);
        }
    }
 }
 impl fmt::Write for Writer {
    fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {
        self.write_string(s);
        Ok(())
    }
 }
 /// Like the `print!` macro in the standard library, but prints to the VGA text buffer.
 #[macro_export]
 macro_rules! print {
    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::framebuffer::_print(format_args!($($arg)*)));
 }
 /// Like the `println!` macro in the standard library, but prints to the VGA text buffer.
 #[macro_export]
 macro_rules! println {
    () => ($crate::print!("\n"));
    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::print!("{}\n", format_args!($($arg)*)));
 }
 /// Prints the given formatted string to the VGA text buffer
 /// through the global `WRITER` instance.
 #[doc(hidden)]
 pub fn _print(args: fmt::Arguments) {
    use core::fmt::Write;
    use x86_64::instructions::interrupts;
    interrupts::without_interrupts(|| {
        WRITER.lock().as_mut().unwrap().write_fmt(args).unwrap();
    });
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_simple() {
    println!("test_println_simple output");
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_many() {
    for _ in 0..200 {
        println!("test_println_many output");
    }
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_output() {
    use core::fmt::Write;
    use x86_64::instructions::interrupts;
    let s = "Some test string that fits on a single line";
    interrupts::without_interrupts(|| {
        let mut writer = WRITER.lock();
        writeln!(writer, "\n{}", s).expect("writeln failed");
        for (i, c) in s.chars().enumerate() {
            let screen_char = writer.buffer.chars[BUFFER_HEIGHT - 2][i].read();
            assert_eq!(char::from(screen_char.ascii_character), c);
        }
    });
 }
--- a/src/interrupts.rs
+++ b/src/interrupts.rs
@@ -1,16 +1,44 @@
-use crate::{gdt, println};
+use crate::{gdt, hlt_loop, print, println};
 use lazy_static::lazy_static;
-use x86_64::structures::idt::{InterruptDescriptorTable, InterruptStackFrame};
+use pic8259_simple::ChainedPics;
 use spin;
 use x86_64::structures::idt::{InterruptDescriptorTable, InterruptStackFrame, PageFaultErrorCode};
 pub const PIC_1_OFFSET: u8 = 32;
 pub const PIC_2_OFFSET: u8 = PIC_1_OFFSET + 8;
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
 #[repr(u8)]
 pub enum InterruptIndex {
    Timer = PIC_1_OFFSET,
    Keyboard,
 }
 impl InterruptIndex {
    fn as_u8(self) -> u8 {
        self as u8
    }
    fn as_usize(self) -> usize {
        usize::from(self.as_u8())
    }
 }
 pub static PICS: spin::Mutex<ChainedPics> =
    spin::Mutex::new(unsafe { ChainedPics::new(PIC_1_OFFSET, PIC_2_OFFSET) });
 lazy_static! {
    static ref IDT: InterruptDescriptorTable = {
        let mut idt = InterruptDescriptorTable::new();
        idt.breakpoint.set_handler_fn(breakpoint_handler);
        idt.page_fault.set_handler_fn(page_fault_handler);
        unsafe {
            idt.double_fault
                .set_handler_fn(double_fault_handler)
                .set_stack_index(gdt::DOUBLE_FAULT_IST_INDEX);
        }
        idt[InterruptIndex::Timer.as_usize()].set_handler_fn(timer_interrupt_handler);
        idt[InterruptIndex::Keyboard.as_usize()].set_handler_fn(keyboard_interrupt_handler);
        idt
    };
 }
@@ -23,6 +51,19 @@ extern "x86-interrupt" fn breakpoint_handler(stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFra
    println!("EXCEPTION: BREAKPOINT\n{:#?}", stack_frame);
 }
 extern "x86-interrupt" fn page_fault_handler(
    stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame,
    error_code: PageFaultErrorCode,
 ) {
    use x86_64::registers::control::Cr2;
    println!("EXCEPTION: PAGE FAULT");
    println!("Accessed Address: {:?}", Cr2::read());
    println!("Error Code: {:?}", error_code);
    println!("{:#?}", stack_frame);
    hlt_loop();
 }
 extern "x86-interrupt" fn double_fault_handler(
    stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame,
    _error_code: u64,
@@ -30,6 +71,27 @@ extern "x86-interrupt" fn double_fault_handler(
    panic!("EXCEPTION: DOUBLE FAULT\n{:#?}", stack_frame);
 }
 extern "x86-interrupt" fn timer_interrupt_handler(_stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame) {
    print!(".");
    unsafe {
        PICS.lock()
            .notify_end_of_interrupt(InterruptIndex::Timer.as_u8());
    }
 }
 extern "x86-interrupt" fn keyboard_interrupt_handler(_stack_frame: &mut InterruptStackFrame) {
    use x86_64::instructions::port::Port;
    let mut port = Port::new(0x60);
    let scancode: u8 = unsafe { port.read() };
    crate::task::keyboard::add_scancode(scancode);
    unsafe {
        PICS.lock()
            .notify_end_of_interrupt(InterruptIndex::Keyboard.as_u8());
    }
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_breakpoint_exception() {
    // invoke a breakpoint exception
--- a/src/lib.rs
+++ b/src/lib.rs
@@ -2,21 +2,31 @@
 #![cfg_attr(test, no_main)]
 #![feature(custom_test_frameworks)]
 #![feature(abi_x86_interrupt)]
 #![feature(alloc_error_handler)]
 #![feature(const_fn)]
 #![feature(const_in_array_repeat_expressions)]
 #![feature(wake_trait)]
 #![test_runner(crate::test_runner)]
 #![reexport_test_harness_main = "test_main"]
 extern crate alloc;
 extern crate rlibc;
 use core::panic::PanicInfo;
 pub mod allocator;
 pub mod framebuffer;
 pub mod gdt;
 pub mod interrupts;
 pub mod memory;
 pub mod serial;
-pub mod vga_buffer;
+pub mod task;
 pub fn init() {
    gdt::init();
    interrupts::init_idt();
    unsafe { interrupts::PICS.lock().initialize() };
    x86_64::instructions::interrupts::enable();
 }
 pub trait Testable {
    fn run(&self) -> ();
@@ -45,7 +55,7 @@ pub fn test_panic_handler(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
    serial_println!("[failed]\n");
    serial_println!("Error: {}\n", info);
    exit_qemu(QemuExitCode::Failed);
-    loop {}
+    hlt_loop();
 }
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
@@ -64,13 +74,24 @@ pub fn exit_qemu(exit_code: QemuExitCode) {
    }
 }
 pub fn hlt_loop() -> ! {
    loop {
        x86_64::instructions::hlt();
    }
 }
 #[cfg(test)]
 use bootloader::{entry_point, BootInfo};
 #[cfg(test)]
 entry_point!(test_kernel_main);
 /// Entry point for `cargo xtest`
 #[cfg(test)]
-#[no_mangle]
+fn test_kernel_main(_boot_info: &'static BootInfo) -> ! {
 pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
    init();
    test_main();
-    loop {}
+    hlt_loop();
 }
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -78,3 +99,8 @@ pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
 fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
    test_panic_handler(info)
 }
 #[alloc_error_handler]
 fn alloc_error_handler(layout: alloc::alloc::Layout) -> ! {
    panic!("allocation error: {:?}", layout)
 }
--- a/src/main.rs
+++ b/src/main.rs
@@ -4,35 +4,49 @@
 #![test_runner(blog_os::test_runner)]
 #![reexport_test_harness_main = "test_main"]
 extern crate alloc;
 use blog_os::println;
 use blog_os::task::{executor::Executor, keyboard, Task};
 use bootloader::{entry_point, BootInfo};
 use core::panic::PanicInfo;
-#[no_mangle]
+entry_point!(kernel_main);
 pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
    println!("Hello World{}", "!");
 fn kernel_main(boot_info: &'static mut BootInfo) -> ! {
    use blog_os::allocator;
    use blog_os::memory::{self, BootInfoFrameAllocator};
    use x86_64::VirtAddr;
    blog_os::framebuffer::init(boot_info.framebuffer.as_mut().unwrap());
    println!("Hello World{}", "!");
    blog_os::init();
-    fn stack_overflow() {
+    let phys_mem_offset = VirtAddr::new(boot_info.physical_memory_offset.unwrap());
-        stack_overflow(); // for each recursion, the return address is pushed
+    let mut mapper = unsafe { memory::init(phys_mem_offset) };
-    }
+    let mut frame_allocator = unsafe { BootInfoFrameAllocator::init(&boot_info.memory_regions) };
-    // uncomment line below to trigger a stack overflow
+    allocator::init_heap(&mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator).expect("heap initialization failed");
    // stack_overflow();
    #[cfg(test)]
    test_main();
-    println!("It did not crash!");
+    let mut executor = Executor::new();
-    loop {}
+    executor.spawn(Task::new(example_task()));
    executor.spawn(Task::new(keyboard::print_keypresses()));
    executor.run();
 }
 /// This function is called on panic.
 #[cfg(not(test))]
 #[panic_handler]
 fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
    unsafe {
        blog_os::framebuffer::WRITER.force_unlock();
    };
    println!("{}", info);
-    loop {}
+    blog_os::hlt_loop();
 }
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -41,6 +55,15 @@ fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
    blog_os::test_panic_handler(info)
 }
 async fn async_number() -> u32 {
    42
 }
 async fn example_task() {
    let number = async_number().await;
    println!("async number: {}", number);
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn trivial_assertion() {
    assert_eq!(1, 1);
--- a/src/memory.rs
+++ b/src/memory.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
 use bootloader::memory_map::{MemoryRegion, MemoryRegionKind};
 use x86_64::{
    structures::paging::{
        FrameAllocator, Mapper, OffsetPageTable, Page, PageTable, PhysFrame, Size4KiB,
    },
    PhysAddr, VirtAddr,
 };
 /// Initialize a new OffsetPageTable.
 ///
 /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the
 /// complete physical memory is mapped to virtual memory at the passed
 /// `physical_memory_offset`. Also, this function must be only called once
 /// to avoid aliasing `&mut` references (which is undefined behavior).
 pub unsafe fn init(physical_memory_offset: VirtAddr) -> OffsetPageTable<'static> {
    let level_4_table = active_level_4_table(physical_memory_offset);
    OffsetPageTable::new(level_4_table, physical_memory_offset)
 }
 /// Returns a mutable reference to the active level 4 table.
 ///
 /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the
 /// complete physical memory is mapped to virtual memory at the passed
 /// `physical_memory_offset`. Also, this function must be only called once
 /// to avoid aliasing `&mut` references (which is undefined behavior).
 unsafe fn active_level_4_table(physical_memory_offset: VirtAddr) -> &'static mut PageTable {
    use x86_64::registers::control::Cr3;
    let (level_4_table_frame, _) = Cr3::read();
    let phys = level_4_table_frame.start_address();
    let virt = physical_memory_offset + phys.as_u64();
    let page_table_ptr: *mut PageTable = virt.as_mut_ptr();
    &mut *page_table_ptr // unsafe
 }
 /// Creates an example mapping for the given page to frame `0xb8000`.
 pub fn create_example_mapping(
    page: Page,
    mapper: &mut OffsetPageTable,
    frame_allocator: &mut impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB>,
 ) {
    use x86_64::structures::paging::PageTableFlags as Flags;
    let frame = PhysFrame::containing_address(PhysAddr::new(0xb8000));
    let flags = Flags::PRESENT | Flags::WRITABLE;
    let map_to_result = unsafe {
        // FIXME: this is not safe, we do it only for testing
        mapper.map_to(page, frame, flags, frame_allocator)
    };
    map_to_result.expect("map_to failed").flush();
 }
 /// A FrameAllocator that always returns `None`.
 pub struct EmptyFrameAllocator;
 unsafe impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB> for EmptyFrameAllocator {
    fn allocate_frame(&mut self) -> Option<PhysFrame> {
        None
    }
 }
 /// A FrameAllocator that returns usable frames from the bootloader's memory map.
 pub struct BootInfoFrameAllocator {
    memory_map: &'static [MemoryRegion],
    next: usize,
 }
 impl BootInfoFrameAllocator {
    /// Create a FrameAllocator from the passed memory map.
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the passed
    /// memory map is valid. The main requirement is that all frames that are marked
    /// as `USABLE` in it are really unused.
    pub unsafe fn init(memory_map: &'static [MemoryRegion]) -> Self {
        BootInfoFrameAllocator {
            memory_map,
            next: 0,
        }
    }
    /// Returns an iterator over the usable frames specified in the memory map.
    fn usable_frames(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = PhysFrame> {
        // get usable regions from memory map
        let regions = self.memory_map.iter();
        let usable_regions = regions.filter(|r| r.kind == MemoryRegionKind::Usable);
        // map each region to its address range
        let addr_ranges = usable_regions.map(|r| r.start..r.end);
        // transform to an iterator of frame start addresses
        let frame_addresses = addr_ranges.flat_map(|r| r.step_by(4096));
        // create `PhysFrame` types from the start addresses
        frame_addresses.map(|addr| PhysFrame::containing_address(PhysAddr::new(addr)))
    }
 }
 unsafe impl FrameAllocator<Size4KiB> for BootInfoFrameAllocator {
    fn allocate_frame(&mut self) -> Option<PhysFrame> {
        let frame = self.usable_frames().nth(self.next);
        self.next += 1;
        frame
    }
 }
--- a/src/serial.rs
+++ b/src/serial.rs
@@ -13,10 +13,14 @@ lazy_static! {
 #[doc(hidden)]
 pub fn _print(args: ::core::fmt::Arguments) {
    use core::fmt::Write;
    use x86_64::instructions::interrupts;
    interrupts::without_interrupts(|| {
        SERIAL1
            .lock()
            .write_fmt(args)
            .expect("Printing to serial failed");
    });
 }
 /// Prints to the host through the serial interface.
--- a/src/task/executor.rs
+++ b/src/task/executor.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
 use super::{Task, TaskId};
 use alloc::{collections::BTreeMap, sync::Arc, task::Wake};
 use core::task::{Context, Poll, Waker};
 use crossbeam_queue::ArrayQueue;
 pub struct Executor {
    tasks: BTreeMap<TaskId, Task>,
    task_queue: Arc<ArrayQueue<TaskId>>,
    waker_cache: BTreeMap<TaskId, Waker>,
 }
 impl Executor {
    pub fn new() -> Self {
        Executor {
            tasks: BTreeMap::new(),
            task_queue: Arc::new(ArrayQueue::new(100)),
            waker_cache: BTreeMap::new(),
        }
    }
    pub fn spawn(&mut self, task: Task) {
        let task_id = task.id;
        if self.tasks.insert(task.id, task).is_some() {
            panic!("task with same ID already in tasks");
        }
        self.task_queue.push(task_id).expect("queue full");
    }
    pub fn run(&mut self) -> ! {
        loop {
            self.run_ready_tasks();
            self.sleep_if_idle();
        }
    }
    fn run_ready_tasks(&mut self) {
        // destructure `self` to avoid borrow checker errors
        let Self {
            tasks,
            task_queue,
            waker_cache,
        } = self;
        while let Ok(task_id) = task_queue.pop() {
            let task = match tasks.get_mut(&task_id) {
                Some(task) => task,
                None => continue, // task no longer exists
            };
            let waker = waker_cache
                .entry(task_id)
                .or_insert_with(|| TaskWaker::new(task_id, task_queue.clone()));
            let mut context = Context::from_waker(waker);
            match task.poll(&mut context) {
                Poll::Ready(()) => {
                    // task done -> remove it and its cached waker
                    tasks.remove(&task_id);
                    waker_cache.remove(&task_id);
                }
                Poll::Pending => {}
            }
        }
    }
    fn sleep_if_idle(&self) {
        use x86_64::instructions::interrupts::{self, enable_interrupts_and_hlt};
        interrupts::disable();
        if self.task_queue.is_empty() {
            enable_interrupts_and_hlt();
        } else {
            interrupts::enable();
        }
    }
 }
 struct TaskWaker {
    task_id: TaskId,
    task_queue: Arc<ArrayQueue<TaskId>>,
 }
 impl TaskWaker {
    fn new(task_id: TaskId, task_queue: Arc<ArrayQueue<TaskId>>) -> Waker {
        Waker::from(Arc::new(TaskWaker {
            task_id,
            task_queue,
        }))
    }
    fn wake_task(&self) {
        self.task_queue.push(self.task_id).expect("task_queue full");
    }
 }
 impl Wake for TaskWaker {
    fn wake(self: Arc<Self>) {
        self.wake_task();
    }
    fn wake_by_ref(self: &Arc<Self>) {
        self.wake_task();
    }
 }
--- a/src/task/keyboard.rs
+++ b/src/task/keyboard.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
 use crate::{print, println};
 use conquer_once::spin::OnceCell;
 use core::{
    pin::Pin,
    task::{Context, Poll},
 };
 use crossbeam_queue::ArrayQueue;
 use futures_util::{
    stream::{Stream, StreamExt},
    task::AtomicWaker,
 };
 use pc_keyboard::{layouts, DecodedKey, HandleControl, Keyboard, ScancodeSet1};
 static SCANCODE_QUEUE: OnceCell<ArrayQueue<u8>> = OnceCell::uninit();
 static WAKER: AtomicWaker = AtomicWaker::new();
 /// Called by the keyboard interrupt handler
 ///
 /// Must not block or allocate.
 pub(crate) fn add_scancode(scancode: u8) {
    if let Ok(queue) = SCANCODE_QUEUE.try_get() {
        if let Err(_) = queue.push(scancode) {
            println!("WARNING: scancode queue full; dropping keyboard input");
        } else {
            WAKER.wake();
        }
    } else {
        println!("WARNING: scancode queue uninitialized");
    }
 }
 pub struct ScancodeStream {
    _private: (),
 }
 impl ScancodeStream {
    pub fn new() -> Self {
        SCANCODE_QUEUE
            .try_init_once(|| ArrayQueue::new(100))
            .expect("ScancodeStream::new should only be called once");
        ScancodeStream { _private: () }
    }
 }
 impl Stream for ScancodeStream {
    type Item = u8;
    fn poll_next(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context) -> Poll<Option<u8>> {
        let queue = SCANCODE_QUEUE
            .try_get()
            .expect("scancode queue not initialized");
        // fast path
        if let Ok(scancode) = queue.pop() {
            return Poll::Ready(Some(scancode));
        }
        WAKER.register(&cx.waker());
        match queue.pop() {
            Ok(scancode) => {
                WAKER.take();
                Poll::Ready(Some(scancode))
            }
            Err(crossbeam_queue::PopError) => Poll::Pending,
        }
    }
 }
 pub async fn print_keypresses() {
    let mut scancodes = ScancodeStream::new();
    let mut keyboard = Keyboard::new(layouts::Us104Key, ScancodeSet1, HandleControl::Ignore);
    while let Some(scancode) = scancodes.next().await {
        if let Ok(Some(key_event)) = keyboard.add_byte(scancode) {
            if let Some(key) = keyboard.process_keyevent(key_event) {
                match key {
                    DecodedKey::Unicode(character) => print!("{}", character),
                    DecodedKey::RawKey(key) => print!("{:?}", key),
                }
            }
        }
    }
 }
--- a/src/task/mod.rs
+++ b/src/task/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
 use alloc::boxed::Box;
 use core::{
    future::Future,
    pin::Pin,
    sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering},
    task::{Context, Poll},
 };
 pub mod executor;
 pub mod keyboard;
 pub mod simple_executor;
 pub struct Task {
    id: TaskId,
    future: Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>,
 }
 impl Task {
    pub fn new(future: impl Future<Output = ()> + 'static) -> Task {
        Task {
            id: TaskId::new(),
            future: Box::pin(future),
        }
    }
    fn poll(&mut self, context: &mut Context) -> Poll<()> {
        self.future.as_mut().poll(context)
    }
 }
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
 struct TaskId(u64);
 impl TaskId {
    fn new() -> Self {
        static NEXT_ID: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
        TaskId(NEXT_ID.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed))
    }
 }
--- a/src/task/simple_executor.rs
+++ b/src/task/simple_executor.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
 use super::Task;
 use alloc::collections::VecDeque;
 use core::task::{Context, Poll, RawWaker, RawWakerVTable, Waker};
 pub struct SimpleExecutor {
    task_queue: VecDeque<Task>,
 }
 impl SimpleExecutor {
    pub fn new() -> SimpleExecutor {
        SimpleExecutor {
            task_queue: VecDeque::new(),
        }
    }
    pub fn spawn(&mut self, task: Task) {
        self.task_queue.push_back(task)
    }
    pub fn run(&mut self) {
        while let Some(mut task) = self.task_queue.pop_front() {
            let waker = dummy_waker();
            let mut context = Context::from_waker(&waker);
            match task.poll(&mut context) {
                Poll::Ready(()) => {} // task done
                Poll::Pending => self.task_queue.push_back(task),
            }
        }
    }
 }
 fn dummy_raw_waker() -> RawWaker {
    fn no_op(_: *const ()) {}
    fn clone(_: *const ()) -> RawWaker {
        dummy_raw_waker()
    }
    let vtable = &RawWakerVTable::new(clone, no_op, no_op, no_op);
    RawWaker::new(0 as *const (), vtable)
 }
 fn dummy_waker() -> Waker {
    unsafe { Waker::from_raw(dummy_raw_waker()) }
 }
--- a/src/vga_buffer.rs
+++ b/src/vga_buffer.rs
@@ -1,193 +0,0 @@
 use core::fmt;
 use lazy_static::lazy_static;
 use spin::Mutex;
 use volatile::Volatile;
 lazy_static! {
    /// A global `Writer` instance that can be used for printing to the VGA text buffer.
    ///
    /// Used by the `print!` and `println!` macros.
    pub static ref WRITER: Mutex<Writer> = Mutex::new(Writer {
        column_position: 0,
        color_code: ColorCode::new(Color::Yellow, Color::Black),
        buffer: unsafe { &mut *(0xb8000 as *mut Buffer) },
    });
 }
 /// The standard color palette in VGA text mode.
 #[allow(dead_code)]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
 #[repr(u8)]
 pub enum Color {
    Black = 0,
    Blue = 1,
    Green = 2,
    Cyan = 3,
    Red = 4,
    Magenta = 5,
    Brown = 6,
    LightGray = 7,
    DarkGray = 8,
    LightBlue = 9,
    LightGreen = 10,
    LightCyan = 11,
    LightRed = 12,
    Pink = 13,
    Yellow = 14,
    White = 15,
 }
 /// A combination of a foreground and a background color.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
 #[repr(transparent)]
 struct ColorCode(u8);
 impl ColorCode {
    /// Create a new `ColorCode` with the given foreground and background colors.
    fn new(foreground: Color, background: Color) -> ColorCode {
        ColorCode((background as u8) << 4 | (foreground as u8))
    }
 }
 /// A screen character in the VGA text buffer, consisting of an ASCII character and a `ColorCode`.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
 #[repr(C)]
 struct ScreenChar {
    ascii_character: u8,
    color_code: ColorCode,
 }
 /// The height of the text buffer (normally 25 lines).
 const BUFFER_HEIGHT: usize = 25;
 /// The width of the text buffer (normally 80 columns).
 const BUFFER_WIDTH: usize = 80;
 /// A structure representing the VGA text buffer.
 #[repr(transparent)]
 struct Buffer {
    chars: [[Volatile<ScreenChar>; BUFFER_WIDTH]; BUFFER_HEIGHT],
 }
 /// A writer type that allows writing ASCII bytes and strings to an underlying `Buffer`.
 ///
 /// Wraps lines at `BUFFER_WIDTH`. Supports newline characters and implements the
 /// `core::fmt::Write` trait.
 pub struct Writer {
    column_position: usize,
    color_code: ColorCode,
    buffer: &'static mut Buffer,
 }
 impl Writer {
    /// Writes an ASCII byte to the buffer.
    ///
    /// Wraps lines at `BUFFER_WIDTH`. Supports the `\n` newline character.
    pub fn write_byte(&mut self, byte: u8) {
        match byte {
            b'\n' => self.new_line(),
            byte => {
                if self.column_position >= BUFFER_WIDTH {
                    self.new_line();
                }
                let row = BUFFER_HEIGHT - 1;
                let col = self.column_position;
                let color_code = self.color_code;
                self.buffer.chars[row][col].write(ScreenChar {
                    ascii_character: byte,
                    color_code,
                });
                self.column_position += 1;
            }
        }
    }
    /// Writes the given ASCII string to the buffer.
    ///
    /// Wraps lines at `BUFFER_WIDTH`. Supports the `\n` newline character. Does **not**
    /// support strings with non-ASCII characters, since they can't be printed in the VGA text
    /// mode.
    fn write_string(&mut self, s: &str) {
        for byte in s.bytes() {
            match byte {
                // printable ASCII byte or newline
                0x20..=0x7e | b'\n' => self.write_byte(byte),
                // not part of printable ASCII range
                _ => self.write_byte(0xfe),
            }
        }
    }
    /// Shifts all lines one line up and clears the last row.
    fn new_line(&mut self) {
        for row in 1..BUFFER_HEIGHT {
            for col in 0..BUFFER_WIDTH {
                let character = self.buffer.chars[row][col].read();
                self.buffer.chars[row - 1][col].write(character);
            }
        }
        self.clear_row(BUFFER_HEIGHT - 1);
        self.column_position = 0;
    }
    /// Clears a row by overwriting it with blank characters.
    fn clear_row(&mut self, row: usize) {
        let blank = ScreenChar {
            ascii_character: b' ',
            color_code: self.color_code,
        };
        for col in 0..BUFFER_WIDTH {
            self.buffer.chars[row][col].write(blank);
        }
    }
 }
 impl fmt::Write for Writer {
    fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {
        self.write_string(s);
        Ok(())
    }
 }
 /// Like the `print!` macro in the standard library, but prints to the VGA text buffer.
 #[macro_export]
 macro_rules! print {
    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::vga_buffer::_print(format_args!($($arg)*)));
 }
 /// Like the `println!` macro in the standard library, but prints to the VGA text buffer.
 #[macro_export]
 macro_rules! println {
    () => ($crate::print!("\n"));
    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::print!("{}\n", format_args!($($arg)*)));
 }
 /// Prints the given formatted string to the VGA text buffer through the global `WRITER` instance.
 #[doc(hidden)]
 pub fn _print(args: fmt::Arguments) {
    use core::fmt::Write;
    WRITER.lock().write_fmt(args).unwrap();
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_simple() {
    println!("test_println_simple output");
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_many() {
    for _ in 0..200 {
        println!("test_println_many output");
    }
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn test_println_output() {
    let s = "Some test string that fits on a single line";
    println!("{}", s);
    for (i, c) in s.chars().enumerate() {
        let screen_char = WRITER.lock().buffer.chars[BUFFER_HEIGHT - 2][i].read();
        assert_eq!(char::from(screen_char.ascii_character), c);
    }
 }
--- a/tests/heap_allocation.rs
+++ b/tests/heap_allocation.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
 #![no_std]
 #![no_main]
 #![feature(custom_test_frameworks)]
 #![test_runner(blog_os::test_runner)]
 #![reexport_test_harness_main = "test_main"]
 extern crate alloc;
 use alloc::{boxed::Box, vec::Vec};
 use blog_os::allocator::HEAP_SIZE;
 use bootloader::{entry_point, BootInfo};
 use core::panic::PanicInfo;
 entry_point!(main);
 fn main(boot_info: &'static BootInfo) -> ! {
    use blog_os::allocator;
    use blog_os::memory::{self, BootInfoFrameAllocator};
    use x86_64::VirtAddr;
    blog_os::init();
    let phys_mem_offset = VirtAddr::new(boot_info.physical_memory_offset.unwrap());
    let mut mapper = unsafe { memory::init(phys_mem_offset) };
    let mut frame_allocator = unsafe { BootInfoFrameAllocator::init(&boot_info.memory_regions) };
    allocator::init_heap(&mut mapper, &mut frame_allocator).expect("heap initialization failed");
    test_main();
    loop {}
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn simple_allocation() {
    let heap_value_1 = Box::new(41);
    let heap_value_2 = Box::new(13);
    assert_eq!(*heap_value_1, 41);
    assert_eq!(*heap_value_2, 13);
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn large_vec() {
    let n = 1000;
    let mut vec = Vec::new();
    for i in 0..n {
        vec.push(i);
    }
    assert_eq!(vec.iter().sum::<u64>(), (n - 1) * n / 2);
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn many_boxes() {
    for i in 0..HEAP_SIZE {
        let x = Box::new(i);
        assert_eq!(*x, i);
    }
 }
 #[test_case]
 fn many_boxes_long_lived() {
    let long_lived = Box::new(1); // new
    for i in 0..HEAP_SIZE {
        let x = Box::new(i);
        assert_eq!(*x, i);
    }
    assert_eq!(*long_lived, 1); // new
 }
 #[panic_handler]
 fn panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
    blog_os::test_panic_handler(info)
 }