+++ title = "A Minimal Rust Kernel" weight = 2 path = "minimal-rust-kernel" date = 2018-02-10 [extra] chapter = "Bare Bones" +++ In this post we create a minimal 64-bit Rust kernel for the x86 architecture. We build upon the [freestanding Rust binary] from the previous post to create a bootable disk image, that prints something to the screen. [freestanding Rust binary]: @/edition-2/posts/01-freestanding-rust-binary/index.md This blog is openly developed on [GitHub]. If you have any problems or questions, please open an issue there. You can also leave comments [at the bottom]. The complete source code for this post can be found in the [`post-02`][post branch] branch. [GitHub]: https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os [at the bottom]: #comments [post branch]: https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/tree/post-02 ## The Boot Process When you turn on a computer, it begins executing firmware code that is stored in motherboard [ROM]. This code performs a [power-on self-test], detects available RAM, and pre-initializes the CPU and hardware. Afterwards it looks for a bootable disk and starts booting the operating system kernel. [ROM]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory [power-on self-test]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-on_self-test On x86, there are two firmware standards: the “Basic Input/Output System“ (**[BIOS]**) and the newer “Unified Extensible Firmware Interface” (**[UEFI]**). The BIOS standard is old and outdated, but simple and well-supported on any x86 machine since the 1980s. UEFI, in contrast, is more modern and has much more features, but is more complex to set up (at least in my opinion). [BIOS]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS [UEFI]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Extensible_Firmware_Interface Currently, we only provide BIOS support, but support for UEFI is planned, too. If you'd like to help us with this, check out the [Github issue](https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/issues/349). ### BIOS Almost all x86 systems have support for BIOS booting, including newer UEFI-based machines that use an emulated BIOS. This is great, because you can use the same boot logic across all machines from the last centuries. But this wide compatibility is at the same time the biggest disadvantage of BIOS booting, because it means that the CPU is put into a 16-bit compatibility mode called [real mode] before booting so that archaic bootloaders from the 1980s would still work. #### Boot Process When you turn on a computer, it loads the BIOS from some special flash memory located on the motherboard. The BIOS runs self test and initialization routines of the hardware, then it looks for bootable disks. If it finds one, the control is transferred to its _bootloader_, which is a 512-byte portion of executable code stored at the disk's beginning. Most bootloaders are larger than 512 bytes, so bootloaders are commonly split into a small first stage, which fits into 512 bytes, and a second stage, which is subsequently loaded by the first stage. The bootloader has to determine the location of the kernel image on the disk and load it into memory. It also needs to switch the CPU from the 16-bit [real mode] first to the 32-bit [protected mode], and then to the 64-bit [long mode], where 64-bit registers and the complete main memory are available. Its third job is to query certain information (such as a memory map) from the BIOS and pass it to the OS kernel. [real mode]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode [protected mode]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode [long mode]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode [memory segmentation]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_memory_segmentation Writing a BIOS bootloader is a bit cumbersome as it requires assembly language and a lot of non insightful steps like “write this magic value to this processor register”. Therefore we don't cover bootloader creation in this post and instead use the existing [`bootloader`] crate to make our kernel bootable. If you are interested in building your own BIOS bootloader: Stay tuned, a set of posts on this topic is already planned! [bootimage]: https://github.com/rust-osdev/bootimage #### The Future of BIOS As noted above, most modern systems still support booting operating systems written for the legacy BIOS firmware for backwards-compatibility. However, there are [plans to remove this support soon][end-bios-support]. Thus, it is strongly recommended to make operating system kernels compatible with the newer UEFI standard too. Fortunately, it is possible to create a kernel that supports booting on both BIOS (for older systems) and UEFI (for modern systems). ### UEFI The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) replaces the classical BIOS firmware on most modern computers. The specification provides lots of useful features that make bootloader implementations much simpler: - It supports initializing the CPU directly into 64-bit mode, instead of starting in a DOS-compatible 16-bit mode like the BIOS firmware. - It understands disk partitions and executable files. Thus it is able to fully load the bootloader from disk into memory (no 512-byte large "first stage" is required anymore). - A standardized [specification][uefi-specification] minimizes the differences between systems. This isn't the case for the legacy BIOS firmware, so that bootloaders often have to try different methods because of hardware differences. - The specification is independent of the CPU architecture, so that the same interface can be used to boot on `x86_64` and `ARM` CPUs. - It natively supports network booting without requiring additional drivers. [uefi-specification]: https://uefi.org/specifications The UEFI standard also tries to make the boot process safer through a so-called _"secure boot"_ mechanism. The idea is that the firmware only allows loading bootloaders that are signed by a trusted [digital signature]. Thus, malware should be prevented from compromising the early boot process. [digital signature]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature #### Issues & Criticism While most of the UEFI specification sounds like a good idea, there are also many issues with the standard. The main issue for most people is the fear that the _secure boot_ mechanism can be used to [lock users into the Windows operating system][uefi-secure-boot-lock-in] and thus prevent the installation of alternative operating systems such as Linux. [uefi-secure-boot-lock-in]: https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/03/windows-10-to-make-the-secure-boot-alt-os-lock-out-a-reality/ Another point of criticism is that the large number of features make the UEFI firmware very complex, which increases the chance that there are some bugs in the firmware implementation. This can lead to security problems because the firmware has complete control over the hardware. For example, a vulnerability in the built-in network stack of an UEFI implementation can allow attackers to compromise the system and e.g. silently observe all I/O data. The fact that most UEFI implementations are not open-source makes this issue even more problematic, since there is no way to audit the firmware code for potential bugs. While there are open firmware projects such as [coreboot] that try to solve these problems, there is no way around the UEFI standard on most modern consumer computers. So we have to live with these drawbacks for now if we want to build a widely compatible bootloader and operating system kernel. [coreboot]: https://www.coreboot.org/ #### Boot Process The UEFI boot process works in the following way: - After powering on and self-testing all components, the UEFI firmware starts looking for special bootable disk partitions called [EFI system partitions]. These partitions must be formatted with the [FAT file system] and assigned a special ID that indicates them as EFI system partition. - If it finds such a partition, the firmware looks for an executable file named `efi\boot\bootx64.efi` (on x86_64 systems). This executable must use the [Portable Executable (PE)] format, which is common in the Windows world. - It then loads the executable from disk to memory, sets up the execution environment (CPU state, page tables, etc.) in a defined way, and finally jumps to the entry point of the loaded executable. [EFI system partitions]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFI_system_partition [FAT file system]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Allocation_Table [Portable Executable (PE)]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Executable From this point on, the bootloader executable has control and can proceed to load the operating system kernel. However, it probably needs additional information about the system to do so, for example the amount of available memory in the system. For this reason, the UEFI firmware passes a pointer to a special _system table_ as an argument when invoking the bootloader entry point function. Using this table, the bootloader can query various system information and even invoke special functions provided by the UEFI firmware, for example for accessing the hard disk. #### How we will use UEFI As it is probably clear at this point, the UEFI interface is very powerful and complex. The wide range of functionality makes it even possible to write an operating system directly as an UEFI application, using the UEFI services instead of creating own drivers. In practice, however, most operating systems use UEFI only for the bootloader since own drivers give you more control over the system. We will also follow this path for our OS implementation. To keep this post focused, we won't cover the creation of an UEFI bootloader in this post. Instead, we will use the already mentioned [`bootloader`] crate, which allows loading our kernel on both UEFI and BIOS systems. If you're interested in how to create an UEFI bootloader: We are planning to cover this in detail in a separate series of posts. If you can't wait, check out our [`uefi` crate] and the [_An EFI App a bit rusty_] post by Gil Mendes. [_An EFI App a bit rusty_]: https://gil0mendes.io/blog/an-efi-app-a-bit-rusty/ [`uefi` crate]: https://github.com/rust-osdev/uefi-rs/ ### The Multiboot Standard To avoid that every operating system implements its own bootloader, which is only compatible with a single OS, the [Free Software Foundation] created an open bootloader standard called [Multiboot] in 1995. The standard defines an interface between the bootloader and operating system, so that any Multiboot compliant bootloader can load any Multiboot compliant operating system on both BIOS and UEFI systems. The reference implementation is [GNU GRUB], which is the most popular bootloader for Linux systems. [Free Software Foundation]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation [Multiboot]: https://www.gnu.org/software/grub/manual/multiboot2/multiboot.html [GNU GRUB]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_GRUB To make a kernel Multiboot compliant, one just needs to insert a so-called [Multiboot header] at the beginning of the kernel file. This makes it very easy to boot an OS in GRUB. However, GRUB and the Multiboot standard have some problems too: [Multiboot header]: https://www.gnu.org/software/grub/manual/multiboot/multiboot.html#OS-image-format - The standard is designed to make the bootloader simple instead of the kernel. For example, the kernel needs to be linked with an [adjusted default page size], because GRUB can't find the Multiboot header otherwise. Another example is that the [boot information], which is passed to the kernel, contains lots of architecture dependent structures instead of providing clean abstractions. - The standard supports only the 32-bit protected mode on BIOS systems. This means that you still have to do the CPU configuration to switch to the 64-bit long mode. - For UEFI systems, the standard provides very little added value as it simply exposes the normal UEFI interface to kernels. - Both GRUB and the Multiboot standard are only sparsely documented. - GRUB needs to be installed on the host system to create a bootable disk image from the kernel file. This makes development on Windows or Mac more difficult. [adjusted default page size]: https://wiki.osdev.org/Multiboot#Multiboot_2 [boot information]: https://www.gnu.org/software/grub/manual/multiboot/multiboot.html#Boot-information-format Because of these drawbacks we decided to not use GRUB or the Multiboot standard. However, we plan to add Multiboot support to our [`bootloader`] crate, so that it's possible to load your kernel on a GRUB system too. If you're interested in writing a Multiboot compliant kernel, check out the [first edition] of this blog series. [first edition]: @/edition-1/_index.md ## A Minimal Kernel Now that we roughly know how a computer boots, it's time to create our own minimal kernel. Our goal is to create a disk image that prints a “Hello World!” to the screen when booted. For that we build upon the [freestanding Rust binary] from the previous post. As you may remember, we built the freestanding binary through `cargo`, but depending on the operating system we needed different entry point names and compile flags. That's because `cargo` builds for the _host system_ by default, i.e. the system you're running on. This isn't something we want for our kernel, because a kernel that runs on top of e.g. Windows does not make much sense. Instead, we want to compile for a clearly defined _target system_. ### Installing Rust Nightly Rust has three release channels: _stable_, _beta_, and _nightly_. The Rust Book explains the difference between these channels really well, so take a minute and [check it out](https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/appendix-07-nightly-rust.html#choo-choo-release-channels-and-riding-the-trains). For building an operating system we will need some experimental features that are only available on the nightly channel, so we need to install a nightly version of Rust. To manage Rust installations I highly recommend [rustup]. It allows you to install nightly, beta, and stable compilers side-by-side and makes it easy to update them. With rustup you can use a nightly compiler for the current directory by running `rustup override set nightly`. Alternatively, you can add a file called `rust-toolchain` with the content `nightly` to the project's root directory. You can check that you have a nightly version installed by running `rustc --version`: The version number should contain `-nightly` at the end. [rustup]: https://www.rustup.rs/ The nightly compiler allows us to opt-in to various experimental features by using so-called _feature flags_ at the top of our file. For example, we could enable the experimental [`asm!` macro] for inline assembly by adding `#![feature(asm)]` to the top of our `main.rs`. Note that such experimental features are completely unstable, which means that future Rust versions might change or remove them without prior warning. For this reason we will only use them if absolutely necessary. [`asm!` macro]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/unstable-book/library-features/asm.html ### Target Specification Cargo supports different target systems through the `--target` parameter. The target is described by a so-called _[target triple]_, which describes the CPU architecture, the vendor, the operating system, and the [ABI]. For example, the `x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu` target triple describes a system with a `x86_64` CPU, no clear vendor and a Linux operating system with the GNU ABI. Rust supports [many different target triples][platform-support], including `arm-linux-androideabi` for Android or [`wasm32-unknown-unknown` for WebAssembly](https://www.hellorust.com/setup/wasm-target/). [target triple]: https://clang.llvm.org/docs/CrossCompilation.html#target-triple [ABI]: https://stackoverflow.com/a/2456882 [platform-support]: https://forge.rust-lang.org/release/platform-support.html [custom-targets]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/rustc/targets/custom.html For our target system, however, we require some special configuration parameters (e.g. no underlying OS), so none of the [existing target triples][platform-support] fits. Fortunately, Rust allows us to define [our own target][custom-targets] through a JSON file. For example, a JSON file that describes the `x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu` target looks like this: ```json { "llvm-target": "x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu", "data-layout": "e-m:e-i64:64-f80:128-n8:16:32:64-S128", "arch": "x86_64", "target-endian": "little", "target-pointer-width": "64", "target-c-int-width": "32", "os": "linux", "executables": true, "linker-flavor": "gcc", "pre-link-args": ["-m64"], "morestack": false } ``` Most fields are required by LLVM to generate code for that platform. For example, the [`data-layout`] field defines the size of various integer, floating point, and pointer types. Then there are fields that Rust uses for conditional compilation, such as `target-pointer-width`. The third kind of fields define how the crate should be built. For example, the `pre-link-args` field specifies arguments passed to the [linker]. [`data-layout`]: https://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#data-layout [linker]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linker_(computing) We also target `x86_64` systems with our kernel, so our target specification will look very similar to the one above. Let's start by creating a `x86_64-blog_os.json` file (choose any name you like) with the common content: ```json { "llvm-target": "x86_64-unknown-none", "data-layout": "e-m:e-i64:64-f80:128-n8:16:32:64-S128", "arch": "x86_64", "target-endian": "little", "target-pointer-width": "64", "target-c-int-width": "32", "os": "none", "executables": true } ``` Note that we changed the OS in the `llvm-target` and the `os` field to `none`, because we will run on bare metal. We add the following build-related entries: ```json "linker-flavor": "ld.lld", "linker": "rust-lld", ``` Instead of using the platform's default linker (which might not support Linux targets), we use the cross platform [LLD] linker that is shipped with Rust for linking our kernel. [LLD]: https://lld.llvm.org/ ```json "panic-strategy": "abort", ``` This setting specifies that the target doesn't support [stack unwinding] on panic, so instead the program should abort directly. This has the same effect as the `panic = "abort"` option in our Cargo.toml, so we can remove it from there. (Note that in contrast to the Cargo.toml option, this target option also applies when we recompile the `core` library later in this post. So be sure to add this option, even if you prefer to keep the Cargo.toml option.) [stack unwinding]: https://www.bogotobogo.com/cplusplus/stackunwinding.php ```json "disable-redzone": true, ``` We're writing a kernel, so we'll need to handle interrupts at some point. To do that safely, we have to disable a certain stack pointer optimization called the _“red zone”_, because it would cause stack corruptions otherwise. For more information, see our separate post about [disabling the red zone]. [disabling the red zone]: @/edition-2/posts/02-minimal-rust-kernel/disable-red-zone/index.md ```json "features": "-mmx,-sse,+soft-float", ``` The `features` field enables/disables target features. We disable the `mmx` and `sse` features by prefixing them with a minus and enable the `soft-float` feature by prefixing it with a plus. Note that there must be no spaces between different flags, otherwise LLVM fails to interpret the features string. The `mmx` and `sse` features determine support for [Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD)] instructions, which can often speed up programs significantly. However, using the large SIMD registers in OS kernels leads to performance problems. The reason is that the kernel needs to restore all registers to their original state before continuing an interrupted program. This means that the kernel has to save the complete SIMD state to main memory on each system call or hardware interrupt. Since the SIMD state is very large (512–1600 bytes) and interrupts can occur very often, these additional save/restore operations considerably harm performance. To avoid this, we disable SIMD for our kernel (not for applications running on top!). [Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD)]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMD A problem with disabling SIMD is that floating point operations on `x86_64` require SIMD registers by default. To solve this problem, we add the `soft-float` feature, which emulates all floating point operations through software functions based on normal integers. For more information, see our post on [disabling SIMD](@/edition-2/posts/02-minimal-rust-kernel/disable-simd/index.md). #### Putting it Together Our target specification file now looks like this: ```json { "llvm-target": "x86_64-unknown-none", "data-layout": "e-m:e-i64:64-f80:128-n8:16:32:64-S128", "arch": "x86_64", "target-endian": "little", "target-pointer-width": "64", "target-c-int-width": "32", "os": "none", "executables": true, "linker-flavor": "ld.lld", "linker": "rust-lld", "panic-strategy": "abort", "disable-redzone": true, "features": "-mmx,-sse,+soft-float" } ``` ### Building our Kernel Compiling for our new target will use Linux conventions (I'm not quite sure why, I assume that it's just LLVM's default). This means that we need an entry point named `_start` as described in the [previous post]: [previous post]: @/edition-2/posts/01-freestanding-rust-binary/index.md ```rust // src/main.rs #![no_std] // don't link the Rust standard library #![no_main] // disable all Rust-level entry points use core::panic::PanicInfo; /// This function is called on panic. #[panic_handler] fn panic(_info: &PanicInfo) -> ! { loop {} } #[no_mangle] // don't mangle the name of this function pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! { // this function is the entry point, since the linker looks for a function // named `_start` by default loop {} } ``` Note that the entry point needs to be called `_start` regardless of your host OS. We can now build the kernel for our new target by passing the name of the JSON file as `--target`: ``` > cargo build --target x86_64-blog_os.json error[E0463]: can't find crate for `core` ``` It fails! The error tells us that the Rust compiler no longer finds the [`core` library]. This library contains basic Rust types such as `Result`, `Option`, and iterators, and is implicitly linked to all `no_std` crates. [`core` library]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/core/index.html The problem is that the core library is distributed together with the Rust compiler as a _precompiled_ library. So it is only valid for supported host triples (e.g., `x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu`) but not for our custom target. If we want to compile code for other targets, we need to recompile `core` for these targets first. #### The `build-std` Option That's where the [`build-std` feature] of cargo comes in. It allows to recompile `core` and other standard library crates on demand, instead of using the precompiled versions shipped with the Rust installation. This feature is very new and still not finished, so it is marked as "unstable" and only available on [nightly Rust compilers]. [`build-std` feature]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/cargo/reference/unstable.html#build-std [nightly Rust compilers]: #installing-rust-nightly To use the feature, we need to create a [cargo configuration] file at `.cargo/config.toml` with the following content: ```toml # in .cargo/config.toml [unstable] build-std = ["core", "compiler_builtins"] ``` This tells cargo that it should recompile the `core` and `compiler_builtins` libraries. The latter is required because it is a dependency of `core`. In order to recompile these libraries, cargo needs access to the rust source code, which we can install with `rustup component add rust-src`.
**Note:** The `unstable.build-std` configuration key requires at least the Rust nightly from 2020-07-15.
After setting the `unstable.build-std` configuration key and installing the `rust-src` component, we can rerun the our build command: ``` > cargo build --target x86_64-blog_os.json Compiling core v0.0.0 (/…/rust/src/libcore) Compiling rustc-std-workspace-core v1.99.0 (/…/rust/src/tools/rustc-std-workspace-core) Compiling compiler_builtins v0.1.32 Compiling blog_os v0.1.0 (/…/blog_os) Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.29 secs ``` We see that `cargo build` now recompiles the `core`, `rustc-std-workspace-core` (a dependency of `compiler_builtins`), and `compiler_builtins` libraries for our custom target. #### Memory-Related Intrinsics The Rust compiler assumes that a certain set of built-in functions is available for all systems. Most of these functions are provided by the `compiler_builtins` crate that we just recompiled. However, there are some memory-related functions in that crate that are not enabled by default because they are normally provided by the C library on the system. These functions include `memset`, which sets all bytes in a memory block to a given value, `memcpy`, which copies one memory block to another, and `memcmp`, which compares two memory blocks. While we didn't need any of these functions to compile our kernel right now, they will be required as soon as we add some more code to it (e.g. when copying structs around). Since we can't link to the C library of the operating system, we need an alternative way to provide these functions to the compiler. One possible approach for this could be to implement our own `memset` etc. functions and apply the `#[no_mangle]` attribute to them (to avoid the automatic renaming during compilation). However, this is dangerous since the slightest mistake in the implementation of these functions could lead to undefined behavior. For example, you might get an endless recursion when implementing `memcpy` using a `for` loop because `for` loops implicitly call the [`IntoIterator::into_iter`] trait method, which might call `memcpy` again. So it's a good idea to reuse existing well-tested implementations instead. [`IntoIterator::into_iter`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/core/iter/trait.IntoIterator.html#tymethod.into_iter Fortunately, the `compiler_builtins` crate already contains implementations for all the needed functions, they are just disabled by default to not collide with the implementations from the C library. We can enable them by setting cargo's [`build-std-features`] flag to `["compiler-builtins-mem"]`. Like the `build-std` flag, this flag can be either passed on the command line as `-Z` flag or configured in the `unstable` table in the `.cargo/config.toml` file. Since we always want to build with this flag, the config file option makes more sense for us: [`build-std-features`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/cargo/reference/unstable.html#build-std-features ```toml # in .cargo/config.toml [unstable] build-std-features = ["compiler-builtins-mem"] ``` (Support for the `compiler-builtins-mem` feature was only [added very recently](https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/pull/77284), so you need at least Rust nightly `2020-09-30` for it.) Behind the scenes, this flag enables the [`mem` feature] of the `compiler_builtins` crate. The effect of this is that the `#[no_mangle]` attribute is applied to the [`memcpy` etc. implementations] of the crate, which makes them available to the linker. It's worth noting that these functions are [not optimized] right now, so their performance might not be the best, but at least they are correct. For `x86_64`, there is an open pull request to [optimize these functions using special assembly instructions][memcpy rep movsb]. [`mem` feature]: https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins/blob/eff506cd49b637f1ab5931625a33cef7e91fbbf6/Cargo.toml#L54-L55 [`memcpy` etc. implementations]: https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins/blob/eff506cd49b637f1ab5931625a33cef7e91fbbf6/src/mem.rs#L12-L69 [not optimized]: https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins/issues/339 [memcpy rep movsb]: https://github.com/rust-lang/compiler-builtins/pull/365 With this change, our kernel has valid implementations for all compiler-required functions, so it will continue to compile even if our code gets more complex. #### Set a Default Target To avoid passing the `--target` parameter on every invocation of `cargo build`, we can override the default target. To do this, we add the following to our [cargo configuration] file at `.cargo/config.toml`: [cargo configuration]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/config.html ```toml # in .cargo/config.toml [build] target = "x86_64-blog_os.json" ``` This tells `cargo` to use our `x86_64-blog_os.json` target when no explicit `--target` argument is passed. This means that we can now build our kernel with a simple `cargo build`. For more information on cargo configuration options, check out the [official documentation][cargo configuration]. We are now able to build our kernel for a bare metal target with a simple `cargo build`. However, our `_start` entry point, which will be called by the boot loader, is still empty. It's time that we output something to screen from it. ### Printing to Screen The easiest way to print text to the screen at this stage is the [VGA text buffer]. It is a special memory area mapped to the VGA hardware that contains the contents displayed on screen. It normally consists of 25 lines that each contain 80 character cells. Each character cell displays an ASCII character with some foreground and background colors. The screen output looks like this: [VGA text buffer]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VGA-compatible_text_mode ![screen output for common ASCII characters](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Codepage-437.png) We will discuss the exact layout of the VGA buffer in the next post, where we write a first small driver for it. For printing “Hello World!”, we just need to know that the buffer is located at address `0xb8000` and that each character cell consists of an ASCII byte and a color byte. The implementation looks like this: ```rust static HELLO: &[u8] = b"Hello World!"; #[no_mangle] pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! { let vga_buffer = 0xb8000 as *mut u8; for (i, &byte) in HELLO.iter().enumerate() { unsafe { *vga_buffer.offset(i as isize * 2) = byte; *vga_buffer.offset(i as isize * 2 + 1) = 0xb; } } loop {} } ``` First, we cast the integer `0xb8000` into a [raw pointer]. Then we [iterate] over the bytes of the [static] `HELLO` [byte string]. We use the [`enumerate`] method to additionally get a running variable `i`. In the body of the for loop, we use the [`offset`] method to write the string byte and the corresponding color byte (`0xb` is a light cyan). [iterate]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch13-02-iterators.html [static]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html#the-static-lifetime [`enumerate`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/iter/trait.Iterator.html#method.enumerate [byte string]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/tokens.html#byte-string-literals [raw pointer]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer [`offset`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.pointer.html#method.offset Note that there's an [`unsafe`] block around all memory writes. The reason is that the Rust compiler can't prove that the raw pointers we create are valid. They could point anywhere and lead to data corruption. By putting them into an `unsafe` block we're basically telling the compiler that we are absolutely sure that the operations are valid. Note that an `unsafe` block does not turn off Rust's safety checks. It only allows you to do [five additional things]. [`unsafe`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html [five additional things]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#unsafe-superpowers I want to emphasize that **this is not the way we want to do things in Rust!** It's very easy to mess up when working with raw pointers inside unsafe blocks, for example, we could easily write beyond the buffer's end if we're not careful. So we want to minimize the use of `unsafe` as much as possible. Rust gives us the ability to do this by creating safe abstractions. For example, we could create a VGA buffer type that encapsulates all unsafety and ensures that it is _impossible_ to do anything wrong from the outside. This way, we would only need minimal amounts of `unsafe` and can be sure that we don't violate [memory safety]. We will create such a safe VGA buffer abstraction in the next post. [memory safety]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_safety ## Running our Kernel Now that we have an executable that does something perceptible, it is time to run it. First, we need to turn our compiled kernel into a bootable disk image by linking it with a bootloader. Then we can run the disk image in the [QEMU] virtual machine or boot it on real hardware using a USB stick. ### Creating a Bootimage To turn our compiled kernel into a bootable disk image, we need to link it with a bootloader. As we learned in the [section about booting], the bootloader is responsible for initializing the CPU and loading our kernel. [section about booting]: #the-boot-process Instead of writing our own bootloader, which is a project on its own, we use the [`bootloader`] crate. This crate implements a basic BIOS bootloader without any C dependencies, just Rust and inline assembly. To use it for booting our kernel, we need to add a dependency on it: [`bootloader`]: https://crates.io/crates/bootloader ```toml # in Cargo.toml [dependencies] bootloader = "0.9.8" ``` Adding the bootloader as dependency is not enough to actually create a bootable disk image. The problem is that we need to link our kernel with the bootloader after compilation, but cargo has no support for [post-build scripts]. [post-build scripts]: https://github.com/rust-lang/cargo/issues/545 To solve this problem, we created a tool named `bootimage` that first compiles the kernel and bootloader, and then links them together to create a bootable disk image. To install the tool, execute the following command in your terminal: ``` cargo install bootimage ``` For running `bootimage` and building the bootloader, you need to have the `llvm-tools-preview` rustup component installed. You can do so by executing `rustup component add llvm-tools-preview`. After installing `bootimage` and adding the `llvm-tools-preview` component, we can create a bootable disk image by executing: ``` > cargo bootimage ``` We see that the tool recompiles our kernel using `cargo build`, so it will automatically pick up any changes you make. Afterwards it compiles the bootloader, which might take a while. Like all crate dependencies it is only built once and then cached, so subsequent builds will be much faster. Finally, `bootimage` combines the bootloader and your kernel to a bootable disk image. After executing the command, you should see a bootable disk image named `bootimage-blog_os.bin` in your `target/x86_64-blog_os/debug` directory. You can boot it in a virtual machine or copy it to an USB drive to boot it on real hardware. (Note that this is not a CD image, which have a different format, so burning it to a CD doesn't work). #### How does it work? The `bootimage` tool performs the following steps behind the scenes: - It compiles our kernel to an [ELF] file. - It compiles the bootloader dependency as a standalone executable. - It links the bytes of the kernel ELF file to the bootloader. [ELF]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format [rust-osdev/bootloader]: https://github.com/rust-osdev/bootloader When booted, the bootloader reads and parses the appended ELF file. It then maps the program segments to virtual addresses in the page tables, zeroes the `.bss` section, and sets up a stack. Finally, it reads the entry point address (our `_start` function) and jumps to it. ### Booting it in QEMU We can now boot the disk image in a virtual machine. To boot it in [QEMU], execute the following command: [QEMU]: https://www.qemu.org/ ``` > qemu-system-x86_64 -drive format=raw,file=target/x86_64-blog_os/debug/bootimage-blog_os.bin warning: TCG doesn't support requested feature: CPUID.01H:ECX.vmx [bit 5] ``` This opens a separate window with that looks like this: ![QEMU showing "Hello World!"](qemu.png) We see that our "Hello World!" is visible on the screen. ### Real Machine It is also possible to write it to an USB stick and boot it on a real machine: ``` > dd if=target/x86_64-blog_os/debug/bootimage-blog_os.bin of=/dev/sdX && sync ``` Where `sdX` is the device name of your USB stick. **Be careful** to choose the correct device name, because everything on that device is overwritten. After writing the image to the USB stick, you can run it on real hardware by booting from it. You probably need to use a special boot menu or change the boot order in your BIOS configuration to boot from the USB stick. Note that it currently doesn't work for UEFI machines, since the `bootloader` crate has no UEFI support yet. ### Using `cargo run` To make it easier to run our kernel in QEMU, we can set the `runner` configuration key for cargo: ```toml # in .cargo/config.toml [target.'cfg(target_os = "none")'] runner = "bootimage runner" ``` The `target.'cfg(target_os = "none")'` table applies to all targets that have set the `"os"` field of their target configuration file to `"none"`. This includes our `x86_64-blog_os.json` target. The `runner` key specifies the command that should be invoked for `cargo run`. The command is run after a successful build with the executable path passed as first argument. See the [cargo documentation][cargo configuration] for more details. The `bootimage runner` command is specifically designed to be usable as a `runner` executable. It links the given executable with the project's bootloader dependency and then launches QEMU. See the [Readme of `bootimage`] for more details and possible configuration options. [Readme of `bootimage`]: https://github.com/rust-osdev/bootimage Now we can use `cargo run` to compile our kernel and boot it in QEMU. ## What's next? In the next post, we will explore the VGA text buffer in more detail and write a safe interface for it. We will also add support for the `println` macro.