diff --git a/blog/content/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.zh-CN.md b/blog/content/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.zh-CN.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4680ac0b --- /dev/null +++ b/blog/content/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.zh-CN.md @@ -0,0 +1,1350 @@ ++++ +title = "分配器设计" +weight = 11 +path = "zh-CN/allocator-designs" +date = 2020-01-20 + +[extra] +chapter = "Memory Management" ++++ + +This post explains how to implement heap allocators from scratch. It presents and discusses different allocator designs, including bump allocation, linked list allocation, and fixed-size block allocation. For each of the three designs, we will create a basic implementation that can be used for our kernel. +本文将展示如何从零开始实现堆分配器。本文将展示和讨论三种不同的分配器设计，包括bump分配器，链表分配器和固定大小块分配器。对于这三种设计，我们都将创建一个简单的分配器，用于管理我们内核中的内存。 + + +This blog is openly developed on [GitHub]. If you have any problems or questions, please open an issue there. You can also leave comments [at the bottom]. The complete source code for this post can be found in the [`post-11`][post branch] branch. +这个系列的 blog 在[GitHub]上开放开发，如果你有任何问题，请在这里开一个 issue 来讨论。当然你也可以在[底部][at the bottom]留言。你可以在[`post-11`][post branch]找到这篇文章的完整源码。 + +[GitHub]: https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os +[at the bottom]: #comments + +[post branch]: https://github.com/phil-opp/blog_os/tree/post-11 + + + +## Introduction +## 介绍 + +In the [previous post], we added basic support for heap allocations to our kernel. For that, we [created a new memory region][map-heap] in the page tables and [used the `linked_list_allocator` crate][use-alloc-crate] to manage that memory. While we have a working heap now, we left most of the work to the allocator crate without trying to understand how it works. +在[上一篇文章][previous post]中，我们为内核添加了基本的堆分配支持。为此，我们在页表中[创建了一个新的内存区域][map-heap]，并使用[`linked_list_allocator` crate][use-alloc-crate]来管理它。现在我们有了一个可以工作的堆，但是我们将大部分工作留给了分配器crate而没有尝试理解它是如何工作的。 + + +[previous post]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md +[map-heap]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md#creating-a-kernel-heap +[use-alloc-crate]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md#using-an-allocator-crate + +In this post, we will show how to create our own heap allocator from scratch instead of relying on an existing allocator crate. We will discuss different allocator designs, including a simplistic _bump allocator_ and a basic _fixed-size block allocator_, and use this knowledge to implement an allocator with improved performance (compared to the `linked_list_allocator` crate). +在本文中，我们将展示如何从零开始实现我们自己的堆分配器，而不是依赖于一个现有的分配器crate。我们将讨论不同的分配器设计，包括一个简化的 _bump 分配器_ 和一个基础的 _固定大小块分配器_ ，并且使用这些知识实现一个性能更好的分配器（相比于`linked_list_allocator` crate）。 + +### Design Goals +### 设计目标 + +The responsibility of an allocator is to manage the available heap memory. It needs to return unused memory on `alloc` calls and keep track of memory freed by `dealloc` so that it can be reused again. Most importantly, it must never hand out memory that is already in use somewhere else because this would cause undefined behavior. +一个分配器的职责就是管理可用的堆内存。它需要在`alloc`调用中返回未使用的内存，通过`dealloc`跟踪已释放的内存，以便能再次使用。更重要的是，它必须永远不重复分配已在其他地方使用的内存，因为这会导致未定义的行为。 + + +Apart from correctness, there are many secondary design goals. For example, the allocator should effectively utilize the available memory and keep [_fragmentation_] low. Furthermore, it should work well for concurrent applications and scale to any number of processors. For maximal performance, it could even optimize the memory layout with respect to the CPU caches to improve [cache locality] and avoid [false sharing]. +除了正确性以外，还有许多次要的设计目标。举例来说，分配器应该高效利用可用的内存，并且减少[内存碎片][_fragmentation_]。更重要的是，它应该适用于并发应用程序，并且可以扩展到任意数量的处理器。为了获得最大的性能，它甚至可以优化内存布局，以考虑 CPU 缓存，以提高[缓存局部性][cache locality]并避免[假共享][false sharing]。 + + +[cache locality]: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/locality-of-reference-and-cache-operation-in-cache-memory/ +[_fragmentation_]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentation_(computing) +[false sharing]: https://mechanical-sympathy.blogspot.de/2011/07/false-sharing.html + +These requirements can make good allocators very complex. For example, [jemalloc] has over 30.000 lines of code. This complexity is often undesired in kernel code, where a single bug can lead to severe security vulnerabilities. Fortunately, the allocation patterns of kernel code are often much simpler compared to userspace code, so that relatively simple allocator designs often suffice. +这些要求使得实现好的分配器非常复杂。例如 [jemalloc]有超过30.000行代码。这种复杂性不是内核代码所期望的，一个简单的bug就能导致严重的安全漏洞。幸运的是，内核代码的内存分配模式通常比用户空间代码要简单，所以相对简单的分配器设计通常就足够了。 + +[jemalloc]: http://jemalloc.net/ + +In the following, we present three possible kernel allocator designs and explain their advantages and drawbacks. +接下来，我们将展示三种可能的内存分配器设计并且解释它们的优缺点。 + +## Bump Allocator +## 指针碰撞分配器 +The most simple allocator design is a _bump allocator_ (also known as _stack allocator_). It allocates memory linearly and only keeps track of the number of allocated bytes and the number of allocations. It is only useful in very specific use cases because it has a severe limitation: it can only free all memory at once. +最简单的分配器设计是 _指针碰撞分配器_（也被称为 _栈分配器_）。它线性分配内存，并且只跟踪已分配的字节数量和分配的次数。它只在非常特殊的使用场景下才是有用的，因为他有一个严重的限制：它只能一次释放所有内存。 + +### Idea +### 设计思想 + +The idea behind a bump allocator is to linearly allocate memory by increasing (_"bumping"_) a `next` variable, which points to the start of the unused memory. At the beginning, `next` is equal to the start address of the heap. On each allocation, `next` is increased by the allocation size so that it always points to the boundary between used and unused memory: +指针碰撞分配器的设计思想是通过增加一个指向未使用内存起点的`next`变量的值来线性分配内存。一开始，`next`指向堆的起始地址。每次分配内存时，`next`的值都会增加分配的内存大小，这样它就一直指向已使用和未使用内存之间的边界。 + + +![The heap memory area at three points in time: + 1: A single allocation exists at the start of the heap; the `next` pointer points to its end. + 2: A second allocation was added right after the first; the `next` pointer points to the end of the second allocation. + 3: A third allocation was added right after the second one; the `next` pointer points to the end of the third allocation.](bump-allocation.svg) + +The `next` pointer only moves in a single direction and thus never hands out the same memory region twice. When it reaches the end of the heap, no more memory can be allocated, resulting in an out-of-memory error on the next allocation. +`next`指针只朝一个方向移动，并且因此永远不会两次分配相同的内存区域。当它到达堆的末尾时，不再有内存可以分配，下一次分配将导致内存溢出错误。 + +A bump allocator is often implemented with an allocation counter, which is increased by 1 on each `alloc` call and decreased by 1 on each `dealloc` call. When the allocation counter reaches zero, it means that all allocations on the heap have been deallocated. In this case, the `next` pointer can be reset to the start address of the heap, so that the complete heap memory is available for allocations again. +一个指针碰撞分配器通常会实现一个分配计数器，每次`alloc`调用增加1，每次`dealloc`调用减少1。当分配计数器为零时，这意味着堆上的所有分配都已被释放。在这种情况下，`next`指针可以被重置为堆的起始地址，以便再次为分配提供完整的堆内存。 + +### Implementation +### 实现 + +We start our implementation by declaring a new `allocator::bump` submodule: +我们从声明一个新的`allocator::bump`子模块开始实现： + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +pub mod bump; +``` + +The content of the submodule lives in a new `src/allocator/bump.rs` file, which we create with the following content: +子模块的内容在一个新的 `src/allocator/bump.rs` 文件中，我们用下面的内容创建它： + +```rust +// in src/allocator/bump.rs + +pub struct BumpAllocator { + heap_start: usize, + heap_end: usize, + next: usize, + allocations: usize, +} + +impl BumpAllocator { + /// Creates a new empty bump allocator. + /// 创建一个新的空指针碰撞分配器 + pub const fn new() -> Self { + BumpAllocator { + heap_start: 0, + heap_end: 0, + next: 0, + allocations: 0, + } + } + + /// Initializes the bump allocator with the given heap bounds. + /// 用给定的堆边界初始化指针碰撞分配器 + /// + /// This method is unsafe because the caller must ensure that the given + /// memory range is unused. Also, this method must be called only once. + /// 这个方法是不安全的，因为调用者必须确保给定的内存范围没有被使用。同样，这个方法只能被调用一次。 + + pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) { + self.heap_start = heap_start; + self.heap_end = heap_start + heap_size; + self.next = heap_start; + } +} +``` + +The `heap_start` and `heap_end` fields keep track of the lower and upper bounds of the heap memory region. The caller needs to ensure that these addresses are valid, otherwise the allocator would return invalid memory. For this reason, the `init` function needs to be `unsafe` to call. +`heap_start` 和 `heap_end`字段跟踪堆内存区域的下界和上界。调用者需要保证这些地址是可用的，否则分配器将返回无效的内存。因此，`init`函数需要是`unsafe`的。 + + +The purpose of the `next` field is to always point to the first unused byte of the heap, i.e., the start address of the next allocation. It is set to `heap_start` in the `init` function because at the beginning, the entire heap is unused. On each allocation, this field will be increased by the allocation size (_"bumped"_) to ensure that we don't return the same memory region twice. +`next`字段的作用是始终指向堆的第一个未使用字节，即下一次分配的起始地址。在`init`函数中，它被设置为`heap_start`，因为开始时整个堆都是未使用的。每次分配时，这个字段都会增加分配的内存大小（_“bumped”_），以确保我们不会两次返回相同的内存区域。 + +The `allocations` field is a simple counter for the active allocations with the goal of resetting the allocator after the last allocation has been freed. It is initialized with 0. +`allocations`字段是活动分配数的简单计数器，目标是在释放最后一次分配后重置分配器。它被初始化为0。 + +We chose to create a separate `init` function instead of performing the initialization directly in `new` in order to keep the interface identical to the allocator provided by the `linked_list_allocator` crate. This way, the allocators can be switched without additional code changes. +我们选择创建一个单独的`init`函数，而不是直接在`new`中执行初始化，以保持接口与`linked_list_allocator`提供的分配器相同。这样，分配器可以在不更改额外代码的情况下进行切换。 + + +### Implementing `GlobalAlloc` +### 实现`GlobalAlloc` + +As [explained in the previous post][global-alloc], all heap allocators need to implement the [`GlobalAlloc`] trait, which is defined like this: +就像在[上一篇文章][global-alloc]中解释的那样，所有的堆分配器都需要实现 `GlobalAlloc` 特征，它的定义如下： + + +[global-alloc]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md#the-allocator-interface +[`GlobalAlloc`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/alloc/alloc/trait.GlobalAlloc.html + +```rust +pub unsafe trait GlobalAlloc { + unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8; + unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout); + + unsafe fn alloc_zeroed(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { ... } + unsafe fn realloc( + &self, + ptr: *mut u8, + layout: Layout, + new_size: usize + ) -> *mut u8 { ... } +} +``` + +Only the `alloc` and `dealloc` methods are required; the other two methods have default implementations and can be omitted. +只有`alloc`和`dealloc`方法是必需的；其他两个方法有默认实现，并且可以省略。 + + +#### First Implementation Attempt +#### 第一次实现尝试 + +Let's try to implement the `alloc` method for our `BumpAllocator`: +让我们试着为 `BumpAllocator` 实现 `alloc` 方法： + +```rust +// in src/allocator/bump.rs + +use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout}; + +unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for BumpAllocator { + unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { + // TODO alignment and bounds check + // TODO 对齐和边界检查 + let alloc_start = self.next; + self.next = alloc_start + layout.size(); + self.allocations += 1; + alloc_start as *mut u8 + } + + unsafe fn dealloc(&self, _ptr: *mut u8, _layout: Layout) { + todo!(); + } +} +``` + +First, we use the `next` field as the start address for our allocation. Then we update the `next` field to point to the end address of the allocation, which is the next unused address on the heap. Before returning the start address of the allocation as a `*mut u8` pointer, we increase the `allocations` counter by 1. +首先，我们使用 `next` 字段作为分配的起始地址。然后，我们将 `next` 字段更新为分配的结束地址，即堆上的下一个未使用地址。在返回分配起始地址的 `*mut u8` 指针之前，我们将 `allocations` 计数器加一。 +Note that we don't perform any bounds checks or alignment adjustments, so this implementation is not safe yet. This does not matter much because it fails to compile anyway with the following error: +注意，我们目前没有执行任何边界检查或对齐调整，所以这个实现目前还不安全。这对我们的实现来说并不重要，因为它会编译失败并报告错误： + + +``` +error[E0594]: cannot assign to `self.next` which is behind a `&` reference + --> src/allocator/bump.rs:29:9 + | +29 | self.next = alloc_start + layout.size(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be written +``` + +(The same error also occurs for the `self.allocations += 1` line. We omitted it here for brevity.) +（同样的错误也会发生在 `self.allocations += 1` 行。这里为了简洁起见省略了它。） + + +The error occurs because the [`alloc`] and [`dealloc`] methods of the `GlobalAlloc` trait only operate on an immutable `&self` reference, so updating the `next` and `allocations` fields is not possible. This is problematic because updating `next` on every allocation is the essential principle of a bump allocator. +错误会发生是因为 `GlobalAlloc` 特征的[`alloc`] 和 [`dealloc`]方法只能在一个不可变的 `&self` 引用上操作，因此，更新 `next` 和 `allocations` 字段是不可能的。 + +[`alloc`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/alloc/alloc/trait.GlobalAlloc.html#tymethod.alloc +[`dealloc`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/alloc/alloc/trait.GlobalAlloc.html#tymethod.dealloc + +#### `GlobalAlloc` and Mutability +#### `GlobalAlloc` 和可变性 + + +Before we look at a possible solution to this mutability problem, let's try to understand why the `GlobalAlloc` trait methods are defined with `&self` arguments: As we saw [in the previous post][global-allocator], the global heap allocator is defined by adding the `#[global_allocator]` attribute to a `static` that implements the `GlobalAlloc` trait. Static variables are immutable in Rust, so there is no way to call a method that takes `&mut self` on the static allocator. For this reason, all the methods of `GlobalAlloc` only take an immutable `&self` reference. +在我们为可变性问题寻找可能的解决方案前，让我们先理解一下为什么 `GlobalAlloc` 特征的方法是用 `&self` 参数定义的：就像我们在[上一篇文章][global-allocator]中解释的那样，全局堆分配器是通过在实现 `GlobalAlloc` 特征的 `static` 上添加 `#[global_allocator]` 属性来定义的。静态变量是 Rust 中的不可变变量，所以没有办法在静态分配器上调用一个接受 `&mut self` 的方法。因此，`GlobalAlloc` 特征的所有方法都只接受一个不可变的 `&self` 引用。 + + +[global-allocator]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md#the-global-allocator-attribute + +Fortunately, there is a way to get a `&mut self` reference from a `&self` reference: We can use synchronized [interior mutability] by wrapping the allocator in a [`spin::Mutex`] spinlock. This type provides a `lock` method that performs [mutual exclusion] and thus safely turns a `&self` reference to a `&mut self` reference. We've already used the wrapper type multiple times in our kernel, for example for the [VGA text buffer][vga-mutex]. +幸运的是，有一种方法能从 `&self` 引用中获取一个 `&mut self` 引用：我们可以通过将分配器封装在 [`spin::Mutex`] 自旋锁中来使用同步[内部可变性][interior mutability]。这个类型提供了一个 `lock` 方法，它执行[互斥][mutual exclusion]，从而安全地将 `&self` 引用转换为 `&mut self` 引用。我们已经在我们的内核中多次使用了这个封装器类型，例如用于 [VGA 文本缓冲区][vga-mutex]。 + + + +[interior mutability]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch15-05-interior-mutability.html +[vga-mutex]: @/edition-2/posts/03-vga-text-buffer/index.md#spinlocks +[`spin::Mutex`]: https://docs.rs/spin/0.5.0/spin/struct.Mutex.html +[mutual exclusion]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_exclusion + +#### A `Locked` Wrapper Type +#### `Locked` 封装类型 + + +With the help of the `spin::Mutex` wrapper type, we can implement the `GlobalAlloc` trait for our bump allocator. The trick is to implement the trait not for the `BumpAllocator` directly, but for the wrapped `spin::Mutex` type: +在 `spin::Mutex`封装类型的帮助下，我们能为我们的指针碰撞分配器实现 `GlobalAlloc` 特征。技巧是不直接为 `BumpAllocator` 实现该特征，而是 `spin::Mutex` 类型实现。 + +```rust +unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for spin::Mutex {…} +``` + +Unfortunately, this still doesn't work because the Rust compiler does not permit trait implementations for types defined in other crates: +不幸的是，这样还是不行，因为Rust编译器不允许为定义在其他crates中的类型实现特征。 + +``` +error[E0117]: only traits defined in the current crate can be implemented for arbitrary types + --> src/allocator/bump.rs:28:1 + | +28 | unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for spin::Mutex { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^-------------------------- + | | | + | | `spin::mutex::Mutex` is not defined in the current crate + | impl doesn't use only types from inside the current crate + | + = note: define and implement a trait or new type instead +``` + +To fix this, we need to create our own wrapper type around `spin::Mutex`: +为了解决这个问题，我们需要实现我们自己的 `spin::Mutex` 类型。 + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +/// A wrapper around spin::Mutex to permit trait implementations. +pub struct Locked { + inner: spin::Mutex, +} + +impl Locked { + pub const fn new(inner: A) -> Self { + Locked { + inner: spin::Mutex::new(inner), + } + } + + pub fn lock(&self) -> spin::MutexGuard { + self.inner.lock() + } +} +``` + +The type is a generic wrapper around a `spin::Mutex`. It imposes no restrictions on the wrapped type `A`, so it can be used to wrap all kinds of types, not just allocators. It provides a simple `new` constructor function that wraps a given value. For convenience, it also provides a `lock` function that calls `lock` on the wrapped `Mutex`. Since the `Locked` type is general enough to be useful for other allocator implementations too, we put it in the parent `allocator` module. +这个类型是一个泛型封装器，它可以封装任何类型 `A`。它不施加任何对封装类型 `A` 的限制，所以它可以用来封装所有种类的类型，而不仅仅是分配器。它提供了一个简单的 `new` 构造函数，用于封装给定的值。为了方便起见，它还提供了一个 `lock` 函数，用于调用封装的 `Mutex` 上的 `lock`。由于 `Locked` 类型对于其他分配器实现也很有用，所以我们将它放在父 `allocator` 模块中。 + +#### Implementation for `Locked` +#### `Locked` 类型的实现 + +The `Locked` type is defined in our own crate (in contrast to `spin::Mutex`), so we can use it to implement `GlobalAlloc` for our bump allocator. The full implementation looks like this: +`Locked` 类型已在我们自己的crate中定义。因此，我们可以使用它来为我们的指针碰撞分配器实现 `GlobalAlloc` 特征。完整的实现如下： + + +```rust +// in src/allocator/bump.rs + +use super::{align_up, Locked}; +use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout}; +use core::ptr; + +unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked { + unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { + let mut bump = self.lock(); // get a mutable reference + + let alloc_start = align_up(bump.next, layout.align()); + let alloc_end = match alloc_start.checked_add(layout.size()) { + Some(end) => end, + None => return ptr::null_mut(), + }; + + if alloc_end > bump.heap_end { + ptr::null_mut() // out of memory + } else { + bump.next = alloc_end; + bump.allocations += 1; + alloc_start as *mut u8 + } + } + + unsafe fn dealloc(&self, _ptr: *mut u8, _layout: Layout) { + let mut bump = self.lock(); // get a mutable reference + + bump.allocations -= 1; + if bump.allocations == 0 { + bump.next = bump.heap_start; + } + } +} +``` + +The first step for both `alloc` and `dealloc` is to call the [`Mutex::lock`] method through the `inner` field to get a mutable reference to the wrapped allocator type. The instance remains locked until the end of the method, so that no data race can occur in multithreaded contexts (we will add threading support soon). +`alloc` 和 `dealloc` 的第一步都是调用[`Mutex::lock`]方法通过 `inner` 字段获取对封装类型的可变引用。封装实例在方法结束前保持锁定，因此不会在多线程上下文中发生数据竞争（我们很快会添加线程支持）。 + +[`Mutex::lock`]: https://docs.rs/spin/0.5.0/spin/struct.Mutex.html#method.lock + +Compared to the previous prototype, the `alloc` implementation now respects alignment requirements and performs a bounds check to ensure that the allocations stay inside the heap memory region. The first step is to round up the `next` address to the alignment specified by the `Layout` argument. The code for the `align_up` function is shown in a moment. We then add the requested allocation size to `alloc_start` to get the end address of the allocation. To prevent integer overflow on large allocations, we use the [`checked_add`] method. If an overflow occurs or if the resulting end address of the allocation is larger than the end address of the heap, we return a null pointer to signal an out-of-memory situation. Otherwise, we update the `next` address and increase the `allocations` counter by 1 like before. Finally, we return the `alloc_start` address converted to a `*mut u8` pointer. +相比于之前的原型，现在的 `alloc` 实现还会检查对齐要求并执行边界检查，确保分配的内存区域在堆内存区域内。第一步是将 `next` 地址向上舍入到 `Layout` 参数指定的对齐值。代码中展示了 `align_up` 函数的实现。然后，我们将请求的分配大小加到 `alloc_start` 地址上，得到分配结束地址。为了防止在大型分配中发生整数溢出，我们使用了[`checked_add`]方法。如果发生溢出或分配结束地址大于堆结束地址，我们返回空指针以表示内存不足情况。否则，我们更新 `next` 地址并增加 `allocations` 计数器，就像之前一样。最后，我们返回 `alloc_start` 地址转换为 `*mut u8` 指针。 + + +[`checked_add`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.usize.html#method.checked_add +[`Layout`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/alloc/alloc/struct.Layout.html + +The `dealloc` function ignores the given pointer and `Layout` arguments. Instead, it just decreases the `allocations` counter. If the counter reaches `0` again, it means that all allocations were freed again. In this case, it resets the `next` address to the `heap_start` address to make the complete heap memory available again. +`dealloc` 函数忽略了给定的指针和 `Layout` 参数。相反，它只是减少了 `allocations` 计数器。如果计数器再次为 `0`，则意味着所有分配都已再次释放。在这种情况下，它将 `next` 地址重置为 `heap_start` 地址，使整个堆内存再次可用。 + +#### Address Alignment +#### 地址对齐 + + +The `align_up` function is general enough that we can put it into the parent `allocator` module. A basic implementation looks like this: +`align_up` 函数足够通用，因此我们可以将它放到父 `allocator` 模块中。基本实现如下： + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +/// Align the given address `addr` upwards to alignment `align`. +fn align_up(addr: usize, align: usize) -> usize { + let remainder = addr % align; + if remainder == 0 { + addr // addr already aligned + } else { + addr - remainder + align + } +} +``` + +The function first computes the [remainder] of the division of `addr` by `align`. If the remainder is `0`, the address is already aligned with the given alignment. Otherwise, we align the address by subtracting the remainder (so that the new remainder is 0) and then adding the alignment (so that the address does not become smaller than the original address). +这个函数首先计算 `addr` 除以 `align` 的余数。如果余数为 `0`，则地址已经与给定的对齐对齐。否则，我们通过减去余数（以便余数为 `0`）并添加对齐（以便地址不小于原始地址）来对齐地址。 + + +[remainder]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_division + +Note that this isn't the most efficient way to implement this function. A much faster implementation looks like this: +注意这不是实现此函数最高效的方法，一个更快的实现如下所示： + +```rust +/// Align the given address `addr` upwards to alignment `align`. +/// +/// Requires that `align` is a power of two. +fn align_up(addr: usize, align: usize) -> usize { + (addr + align - 1) & !(align - 1) +} +``` + +This method requires `align` to be a power of two, which can be guaranteed by utilizing the `GlobalAlloc` trait (and its [`Layout`] parameter). This makes it possible to create a [bitmask] to align the address in a very efficient way. To understand how it works, let's go through it step by step, starting on the right side: + + +[`Layout`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/alloc/alloc/struct.Layout.html +[bitmask]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_(computing) + +- Since `align` is a power of two, its [binary representation] has only a single bit set (e.g. `0b000100000`). This means that `align - 1` has all the lower bits set (e.g. `0b00011111`). +- By creating the [bitwise `NOT`] through the `!` operator, we get a number that has all the bits set except for the bits lower than `align` (e.g. `0b…111111111100000`). +- By performing a [bitwise `AND`] on an address and `!(align - 1)`, we align the address _downwards_. This works by clearing all the bits that are lower than `align`. +- Since we want to align upwards instead of downwards, we increase the `addr` by `align - 1` before performing the bitwise `AND`. This way, already aligned addresses remain the same while non-aligned addresses are rounded to the next alignment boundary. + +[binary representation]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number#Representation +[bitwise `NOT`]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation#NOT +[bitwise `AND`]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation#AND + +Which variant you choose is up to you. Both compute the same result, only using different methods. + +### Using It + +To use the bump allocator instead of the `linked_list_allocator` crate, we need to update the `ALLOCATOR` static in `allocator.rs`: +为了使用我们的指针碰撞分配器，我们需要更新 `allocator.rs` 中的 `ALLOCATOR` 静态变量： + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +use bump::BumpAllocator; + +#[global_allocator] +static ALLOCATOR: Locked = Locked::new(BumpAllocator::new()); +``` + +Here it becomes important that we declared `BumpAllocator::new` and `Locked::new` as [`const` functions]. If they were normal functions, a compilation error would occur because the initialization expression of a `static` must be evaluable at compile time. +我们需要将 `BumpAllocator::new` 和 `Locked::new` 定义为 [`const` 函数][`const` functions]。如果它们是普通的函数，将会发生编译错误，因为 + + +[`const` functions]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/functions.html#const-functions + +We don't need to change the `ALLOCATOR.lock().init(HEAP_START, HEAP_SIZE)` call in our `init_heap` function because the bump allocator provides the same interface as the allocator provided by the `linked_list_allocator`. +我们不需要修改我们的 `init_heap` 函数中的 `ALLOCATOR.lock().init(HEAP_START, HEAP_SIZE)` 调用，因为指针碰撞分配器提供的接口与 `linked_list_allocator` 提供的接口相同。 + +Now our kernel uses our bump allocator! Everything should still work, including the [`heap_allocation` tests] that we created in the previous post: +现在我们的内核使用了我们的指针碰撞分配器！一切正常，包括我们在上一篇文章中创建的 [`heap_allocation` tests]： + +[`heap_allocation` tests]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md#adding-a-test + +``` +> cargo test --test heap_allocation +[…] +Running 3 tests +simple_allocation... [ok] +large_vec... [ok] +many_boxes... [ok] +``` + +### Discussion +### 讨论 + + +The big advantage of bump allocation is that it's very fast. Compared to other allocator designs (see below) that need to actively look for a fitting memory block and perform various bookkeeping tasks on `alloc` and `dealloc`, a bump allocator [can be optimized][bump downwards] to just a few assembly instructions. This makes bump allocators useful for optimizing the allocation performance, for example when creating a [virtual DOM library]. +指针碰撞分配最大的优势就是它非常快。相比于其他的分配器设计（见下文），指针碰撞分配器需要主动查找合适的内存块并在 `alloc` 和 `dealloc` 上执行各种簿记任务。但是，[可以对其进行优化][bump downwards]，使其仅降至几个汇编指令。这使得指针碰撞分配器在优化分配性能时非常有用，例如当创建一个[虚拟 DOM 库][virtual DOM library]时。 + + +[bump downwards]: https://fitzgeraldnick.com/2019/11/01/always-bump-downwards.html +[virtual DOM library]: https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/03/fast-bump-allocated-virtual-doms-with-rust-and-wasm/ + +While a bump allocator is seldom used as the global allocator, the principle of bump allocation is often applied in the form of [arena allocation], which basically batches individual allocations together to improve performance. An example of an arena allocator for Rust is contained in the [`toolshed`] crate. +指针碰撞分配器通常不被用作全局分配器，但指针碰撞分配的原理通常以[arena allocation]的形式应用，它基本上将多个分配捆绑在一起以提高性能。Rust 的一个arenas 分配器的例子包含在 [`toolshed`] 库中。 + + +[arena allocation]: https://mgravell.github.io/Pipelines.Sockets.Unofficial/docs/arenas.html +[`toolshed`]: https://docs.rs/toolshed/0.8.1/toolshed/index.html + +#### The Drawback of a Bump Allocator +#### 指针碰撞分配器的缺点 + +The main limitation of a bump allocator is that it can only reuse deallocated memory after all allocations have been freed. This means that a single long-lived allocation suffices to prevent memory reuse. We can see this when we add a variation of the `many_boxes` test: +指针碰撞分配器的主要限制是它只能在所有已分配的内存都已释放后重用已释放的内存。这意味着单个长期存在的分配就可以阻止内存重用。我们可以通过添加 `many_boxes` 测试的变体来看到这一点： + +```rust +// in tests/heap_allocation.rs + +#[test_case] +fn many_boxes_long_lived() { + let long_lived = Box::new(1); // new + for i in 0..HEAP_SIZE { + let x = Box::new(i); + assert_eq!(*x, i); + } + assert_eq!(*long_lived, 1); // new +} +``` + +Like the `many_boxes` test, this test creates a large number of allocations to provoke an out-of-memory failure if the allocator does not reuse freed memory. Additionally, the test creates a `long_lived` allocation, which lives for the whole loop execution. +就像 `many_boxes`测试，此测试创建了大量的分配，以触发如果分配器不重用已释放内存时的内存溢出错误。此外，该测试还创建了一个 `long_lived` 分配，它在整个循环执行期间存在。 + +When we try to run our new test, we see that it indeed fails: +当我们运行新的测试时，我们会看到它确实失败了： + +``` +> cargo test --test heap_allocation +Running 4 tests +simple_allocation... [ok] +large_vec... [ok] +many_boxes... [ok] +many_boxes_long_lived... [failed] + +Error: panicked at 'allocation error: Layout { size_: 8, align_: 8 }', src/lib.rs:86:5 +``` + +Let's try to understand why this failure occurs in detail: First, the `long_lived` allocation is created at the start of the heap, thereby increasing the `allocations` counter by 1. For each iteration of the loop, a short-lived allocation is created and directly freed again before the next iteration starts. This means that the `allocations` counter is temporarily increased to 2 at the beginning of an iteration and decreased to 1 at the end of it. The problem now is that the bump allocator can only reuse memory after _all_ allocations have been freed, i.e., when the `allocations` counter falls to 0. Since this doesn't happen before the end of the loop, each loop iteration allocates a new region of memory, leading to an out-of-memory error after a number of iterations. +让我们试着理解为什么会发生此错误：首先，`long_lived`分配在堆的起始位置被创建，然后 `allocations` 计数器增加1.对于在循环中的每一次迭代，一个分配会创建并在下一次循环开始前被直接释放。这意味着 `allocations` 计数器在迭代的一开始短暂地增加为2并在迭代结束时减少为1。现在问题是指针碰撞分配器只有在 _所有_ 分配均被释放之后才能重用内存，例如，当 `allocations` 计数器变为0时。因为这在循环结束前不会发生，每个循环迭代分配一个新的内存区域，在一定次数迭代后导致内存溢出错误。 + + +#### Fixing the Test? +#### 修复测试？ + +There are two potential tricks that we could utilize to fix the test for our bump allocator: +有两个潜在的技巧可以用来修复我们指针碰撞分配器的测试： + +- We could update `dealloc` to check whether the freed allocation was the last allocation returned by `alloc` by comparing its end address with the `next` pointer. In case they're equal, we can safely reset `next` back to the start address of the freed allocation. This way, each loop iteration reuses the same memory block. +- 我们可以更新 `dealloc` 通过比较其结束地址与 `next` 指针来检查释放的分配是否与 `alloc` 返回的最后一个分配的结束地址相等。如果是这种情况，我们可以安全地将 `next` 指针恢复为已释放分配的起始地址。这样，每个循环迭代都可以重用相同的内存块。 + + +- We could add an `alloc_back` method that allocates memory from the _end_ of the heap using an additional `next_back` field. Then we could manually use this allocation method for all long-lived allocations, thereby separating short-lived and long-lived allocations on the heap. Note that this separation only works if it's clear beforehand how long each allocation will live. Another drawback of this approach is that manually performing allocations is cumbersome and potentially unsafe. +- 我们可以增加一个 `alloc_back` 方法，该方法使用一个额外的 `next_back` 字段从堆的 _末尾_ 分配内存。然后我们可以为所有长生命周期的分配手动调用此分配方法，以此在堆上分隔短生命周期和长生命周期的分配。注意这种分隔只有在清楚地知道每个分配会存活多久的前提下才能正常工作。此方法的另一个缺点时手动分配是潜在不安全的 + +While both of these approaches work to fix the test, they are not a general solution since they are only able to reuse memory in very specific cases. The question is: Is there a general solution that reuses _all_ freed memory? +虽然这两种方法都可以修复这个测试，但因为它们都只能在特定场景下重用内存，它们都不是通用的解决方案。问题是：存在一种通用的解决方案来重用 _所有_ 已释放的内存吗？ + +#### Reusing All Freed Memory? +#### 重用所有已释放的内存？ + + +As we learned [in the previous post][heap-intro], allocations can live arbitrarily long and can be freed in an arbitrary order. This means that we need to keep track of a potentially unbounded number of non-continuous, unused memory regions, as illustrated by the following example: +从 [上一篇文章][heap-intro] 中我们知道，分配可以存活任意长的时间，也可以以任意顺序被释放。这意味着我们需要跟踪一个可能无界的未连续的未使用内存区域，如下面的示例所示： + +[heap-intro]: @/edition-2/posts/10-heap-allocation/index.md#dynamic-memory + +![](allocation-fragmentation.svg) + +The graphic shows the heap over the course of time. At the beginning, the complete heap is unused, and the `next` address is equal to `heap_start` (line 1). Then the first allocation occurs (line 2). In line 3, a second memory block is allocated and the first allocation is freed. Many more allocations are added in line 4. Half of them are very short-lived and already get freed in line 5, where another new allocation is also added. +这张图展示了堆随时间变化的情况。一开始，整个堆都是未使用的，`next` 地址等于 `heap_start`（第一行）。然后，第一次分配发生（第2行）。在第3行，分配了一个新的内存块并释放了第一个内存块。在第4行添加了更多的分配。其中有一半的分配是非常短暂的，在第5行已经被释放。 + + +Line 5 shows the fundamental problem: We have five unused memory regions with different sizes, but the `next` pointer can only point to the beginning of the last region. While we could store the start addresses and sizes of the other unused memory regions in an array of size 4 for this example, this isn't a general solution since we could easily create an example with 8, 16, or 1000 unused memory regions. +第五行展示了问题所在：我们有5个不同大小的未使用内存区域，但 `next` 指针只能指向最后一个区域的开头。虽然我们可以在这个例子中使用一个大小为4的数组来存储其他未使用内存区域的起始地址和大小，但这不是一个通用的解决方案，因为我们可以轻松创建一个使用8、16或1000个未使用内存区域的示例。 + +Normally, when we have a potentially unbounded number of items, we can just use a heap-allocated collection. This isn't really possible in our case, since the heap allocator can't depend on itself (it would cause endless recursion or deadlocks). So we need to find a different solution. +通常，当存在潜在无限数量的元素时，我们可以使用一个堆分配集合。这在我们的场景中是不可能的，因为堆分配器不能依赖于它自身（他会造成无限递归或死锁）。因此我们需要寻找一种不同的解决方案。 +## Linked List Allocator +## 链表分配器 + +A common trick to keep track of an arbitrary number of free memory areas when implementing allocators is to use these areas themselves as backing storage. This utilizes the fact that the regions are still mapped to a virtual address and backed by a physical frame, but the stored information is not needed anymore. By storing the information about the freed region in the region itself, we can keep track of an unbounded number of freed regions without needing additional memory. + +The most common implementation approach is to construct a single linked list in the freed memory, with each node being a freed memory region: + +![](linked-list-allocation.svg) + +Each list node contains two fields: the size of the memory region and a pointer to the next unused memory region. With this approach, we only need a pointer to the first unused region (called `head`) to keep track of all unused regions, regardless of their number. The resulting data structure is often called a [_free list_]. + +[_free list_]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_list + +As you might guess from the name, this is the technique that the `linked_list_allocator` crate uses. Allocators that use this technique are also often called _pool allocators_. + +### Implementation + +In the following, we will create our own simple `LinkedListAllocator` type that uses the above approach for keeping track of freed memory regions. This part of the post isn't required for future posts, so you can skip the implementation details if you like. + +#### The Allocator Type + +We start by creating a private `ListNode` struct in a new `allocator::linked_list` submodule: + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +pub mod linked_list; +``` + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +struct ListNode { + size: usize, + next: Option<&'static mut ListNode>, +} +``` + +Like in the graphic, a list node has a `size` field and an optional pointer to the next node, represented by the `Option<&'static mut ListNode>` type. The `&'static mut` type semantically describes an [owned] object behind a pointer. Basically, it's a [`Box`] without a destructor that frees the object at the end of the scope. + +[owned]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html +[`Box`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/alloc/boxed/index.html + +We implement the following set of methods for `ListNode`: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +impl ListNode { + const fn new(size: usize) -> Self { + ListNode { size, next: None } + } + + fn start_addr(&self) -> usize { + self as *const Self as usize + } + + fn end_addr(&self) -> usize { + self.start_addr() + self.size + } +} +``` + +The type has a simple constructor function named `new` and methods to calculate the start and end addresses of the represented region. We make the `new` function a [const function], which will be required later when constructing a static linked list allocator. + +[const function]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/functions.html#const-functions + +With the `ListNode` struct as a building block, we can now create the `LinkedListAllocator` struct: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +pub struct LinkedListAllocator { + head: ListNode, +} + +impl LinkedListAllocator { + /// Creates an empty LinkedListAllocator. + pub const fn new() -> Self { + Self { + head: ListNode::new(0), + } + } + + /// Initialize the allocator with the given heap bounds. + /// + /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the given + /// heap bounds are valid and that the heap is unused. This method must be + /// called only once. + pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) { + unsafe { + self.add_free_region(heap_start, heap_size); + } + } + + /// Adds the given memory region to the front of the list. + unsafe fn add_free_region(&mut self, addr: usize, size: usize) { + todo!(); + } +} +``` + +The struct contains a `head` node that points to the first heap region. We are only interested in the value of the `next` pointer, so we set the `size` to 0 in the `ListNode::new` function. Making `head` a `ListNode` instead of just a `&'static mut ListNode` has the advantage that the implementation of the `alloc` method will be simpler. + +Like for the bump allocator, the `new` function doesn't initialize the allocator with the heap bounds. In addition to maintaining API compatibility, the reason is that the initialization routine requires writing a node to the heap memory, which can only happen at runtime. The `new` function, however, needs to be a [`const` function] that can be evaluated at compile time because it will be used for initializing the `ALLOCATOR` static. For this reason, we again provide a separate, non-constant `init` method. + +[`const` function]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/functions.html#const-functions + +The `init` method uses an `add_free_region` method, whose implementation will be shown in a moment. For now, we use the [`todo!`] macro to provide a placeholder implementation that always panics. + +[`todo!`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/macro.todo.html + +#### The `add_free_region` Method + +The `add_free_region` method provides the fundamental _push_ operation on the linked list. We currently only call this method from `init`, but it will also be the central method in our `dealloc` implementation. Remember, the `dealloc` method is called when an allocated memory region is freed again. To keep track of this freed memory region, we want to push it to the linked list. + +The implementation of the `add_free_region` method looks like this: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +use super::align_up; +use core::mem; + +impl LinkedListAllocator { + /// Adds the given memory region to the front of the list. + unsafe fn add_free_region(&mut self, addr: usize, size: usize) { + // ensure that the freed region is capable of holding ListNode + assert_eq!(align_up(addr, mem::align_of::()), addr); + assert!(size >= mem::size_of::()); + + // create a new list node and append it at the start of the list + let mut node = ListNode::new(size); + node.next = self.head.next.take(); + let node_ptr = addr as *mut ListNode; + unsafe { + node_ptr.write(node); + self.head.next = Some(&mut *node_ptr) + } + } +} +``` + +The method takes the address and size of a memory region as an argument and adds it to the front of the list. First, it ensures that the given region has the necessary size and alignment for storing a `ListNode`. Then it creates the node and inserts it into the list through the following steps: + +![](linked-list-allocator-push.svg) + +Step 0 shows the state of the heap before `add_free_region` is called. In step 1, the method is called with the memory region marked as `freed` in the graphic. After the initial checks, the method creates a new `node` on its stack with the size of the freed region. It then uses the [`Option::take`] method to set the `next` pointer of the node to the current `head` pointer, thereby resetting the `head` pointer to `None`. + +[`Option::take`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/option/enum.Option.html#method.take + +In step 2, the method writes the newly created `node` to the beginning of the freed memory region through the [`write`] method. It then points the `head` pointer to the new node. The resulting pointer structure looks a bit chaotic because the freed region is always inserted at the beginning of the list, but if we follow the pointers, we see that each free region is still reachable from the `head` pointer. + +[`write`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.pointer.html#method.write + +#### The `find_region` Method + +The second fundamental operation on a linked list is finding an entry and removing it from the list. This is the central operation needed for implementing the `alloc` method. We implement the operation as a `find_region` method in the following way: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +impl LinkedListAllocator { + /// Looks for a free region with the given size and alignment and removes + /// it from the list. + /// + /// Returns a tuple of the list node and the start address of the allocation. + fn find_region(&mut self, size: usize, align: usize) + -> Option<(&'static mut ListNode, usize)> + { + // reference to current list node, updated for each iteration + let mut current = &mut self.head; + // look for a large enough memory region in linked list + while let Some(ref mut region) = current.next { + if let Ok(alloc_start) = Self::alloc_from_region(®ion, size, align) { + // region suitable for allocation -> remove node from list + let next = region.next.take(); + let ret = Some((current.next.take().unwrap(), alloc_start)); + current.next = next; + return ret; + } else { + // region not suitable -> continue with next region + current = current.next.as_mut().unwrap(); + } + } + + // no suitable region found + None + } +} +``` + +The method uses a `current` variable and a [`while let` loop] to iterate over the list elements. At the beginning, `current` is set to the (dummy) `head` node. On each iteration, it is then updated to the `next` field of the current node (in the `else` block). If the region is suitable for an allocation with the given size and alignment, the region is removed from the list and returned together with the `alloc_start` address. + +[`while let` loop]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/expressions/loop-expr.html#predicate-pattern-loops + +When the `current.next` pointer becomes `None`, the loop exits. This means we iterated over the whole list but found no region suitable for an allocation. In that case, we return `None`. Whether a region is suitable is checked by the `alloc_from_region` function, whose implementation will be shown in a moment. + +Let's take a more detailed look at how a suitable region is removed from the list: + +![](linked-list-allocator-remove-region.svg) + +Step 0 shows the situation before any pointer adjustments. The `region` and `current` regions and the `region.next` and `current.next` pointers are marked in the graphic. In step 1, both the `region.next` and `current.next` pointers are reset to `None` by using the [`Option::take`] method. The original pointers are stored in local variables called `next` and `ret`. + +In step 2, the `current.next` pointer is set to the local `next` pointer, which is the original `region.next` pointer. The effect is that `current` now directly points to the region after `region`, so that `region` is no longer an element of the linked list. The function then returns the pointer to `region` stored in the local `ret` variable. + +##### The `alloc_from_region` Function + +The `alloc_from_region` function returns whether a region is suitable for an allocation with a given size and alignment. It is defined like this: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +impl LinkedListAllocator { + /// Try to use the given region for an allocation with given size and + /// alignment. + /// + /// Returns the allocation start address on success. + fn alloc_from_region(region: &ListNode, size: usize, align: usize) + -> Result + { + let alloc_start = align_up(region.start_addr(), align); + let alloc_end = alloc_start.checked_add(size).ok_or(())?; + + if alloc_end > region.end_addr() { + // region too small + return Err(()); + } + + let excess_size = region.end_addr() - alloc_end; + if excess_size > 0 && excess_size < mem::size_of::() { + // rest of region too small to hold a ListNode (required because the + // allocation splits the region in a used and a free part) + return Err(()); + } + + // region suitable for allocation + Ok(alloc_start) + } +} +``` + +First, the function calculates the start and end address of a potential allocation, using the `align_up` function we defined earlier and the [`checked_add`] method. If an overflow occurs or if the end address is behind the end address of the region, the allocation doesn't fit in the region and we return an error. + +The function performs a less obvious check after that. This check is necessary because most of the time an allocation does not fit a suitable region perfectly, so that a part of the region remains usable after the allocation. This part of the region must store its own `ListNode` after the allocation, so it must be large enough to do so. The check verifies exactly that: either the allocation fits perfectly (`excess_size == 0`) or the excess size is large enough to store a `ListNode`. + +#### Implementing `GlobalAlloc` + +With the fundamental operations provided by the `add_free_region` and `find_region` methods, we can now finally implement the `GlobalAlloc` trait. As with the bump allocator, we don't implement the trait directly for the `LinkedListAllocator` but only for a wrapped `Locked`. The [`Locked` wrapper] adds interior mutability through a spinlock, which allows us to modify the allocator instance even though the `alloc` and `dealloc` methods only take `&self` references. + +[`Locked` wrapper]: @/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.md#a-locked-wrapper-type + +The implementation looks like this: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +use super::Locked; +use alloc::alloc::{GlobalAlloc, Layout}; +use core::ptr; + +unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked { + unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { + // perform layout adjustments + let (size, align) = LinkedListAllocator::size_align(layout); + let mut allocator = self.lock(); + + if let Some((region, alloc_start)) = allocator.find_region(size, align) { + let alloc_end = alloc_start.checked_add(size).expect("overflow"); + let excess_size = region.end_addr() - alloc_end; + if excess_size > 0 { + unsafe { + allocator.add_free_region(alloc_end, excess_size); + } + } + alloc_start as *mut u8 + } else { + ptr::null_mut() + } + } + + unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) { + // perform layout adjustments + let (size, _) = LinkedListAllocator::size_align(layout); + + unsafe { self.lock().add_free_region(ptr as usize, size) } + } +} +``` + +Let's start with the `dealloc` method because it is simpler: First, it performs some layout adjustments, which we will explain in a moment. Then, it retrieves a `&mut LinkedListAllocator` reference by calling the [`Mutex::lock`] function on the [`Locked` wrapper]. Lastly, it calls the `add_free_region` function to add the deallocated region to the free list. + +The `alloc` method is a bit more complex. It starts with the same layout adjustments and also calls the [`Mutex::lock`] function to receive a mutable allocator reference. Then it uses the `find_region` method to find a suitable memory region for the allocation and remove it from the list. If this doesn't succeed and `None` is returned, it returns `null_mut` to signal an error as there is no suitable memory region. + +In the success case, the `find_region` method returns a tuple of the suitable region (no longer in the list) and the start address of the allocation. Using `alloc_start`, the allocation size, and the end address of the region, it calculates the end address of the allocation and the excess size again. If the excess size is not null, it calls `add_free_region` to add the excess size of the memory region back to the free list. Finally, it returns the `alloc_start` address casted as a `*mut u8` pointer. + +#### Layout Adjustments + +So what are these layout adjustments that we make at the beginning of both `alloc` and `dealloc`? They ensure that each allocated block is capable of storing a `ListNode`. This is important because the memory block is going to be deallocated at some point, where we want to write a `ListNode` to it. If the block is smaller than a `ListNode` or does not have the correct alignment, undefined behavior can occur. + +The layout adjustments are performed by the `size_align` function, which is defined like this: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/linked_list.rs + +impl LinkedListAllocator { + /// Adjust the given layout so that the resulting allocated memory + /// region is also capable of storing a `ListNode`. + /// + /// Returns the adjusted size and alignment as a (size, align) tuple. + fn size_align(layout: Layout) -> (usize, usize) { + let layout = layout + .align_to(mem::align_of::()) + .expect("adjusting alignment failed") + .pad_to_align(); + let size = layout.size().max(mem::size_of::()); + (size, layout.align()) + } +} +``` + +First, the function uses the [`align_to`] method on the passed [`Layout`] to increase the alignment to the alignment of a `ListNode` if necessary. It then uses the [`pad_to_align`] method to round up the size to a multiple of the alignment to ensure that the start address of the next memory block will have the correct alignment for storing a `ListNode` too. +In the second step, it uses the [`max`] method to enforce a minimum allocation size of `mem::size_of::`. This way, the `dealloc` function can safely write a `ListNode` to the freed memory block. + +[`align_to`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/alloc/struct.Layout.html#method.align_to +[`pad_to_align`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/alloc/struct.Layout.html#method.pad_to_align +[`max`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cmp/trait.Ord.html#method.max + +### Using it + +We can now update the `ALLOCATOR` static in the `allocator` module to use our new `LinkedListAllocator`: + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +use linked_list::LinkedListAllocator; + +#[global_allocator] +static ALLOCATOR: Locked = + Locked::new(LinkedListAllocator::new()); +``` + +Since the `init` function behaves the same for the bump and linked list allocators, we don't need to modify the `init` call in `init_heap`. + +When we now run our `heap_allocation` tests again, we see that all tests pass now, including the `many_boxes_long_lived` test that failed with the bump allocator: + +``` +> cargo test --test heap_allocation +simple_allocation... [ok] +large_vec... [ok] +many_boxes... [ok] +many_boxes_long_lived... [ok] +``` + +This shows that our linked list allocator is able to reuse freed memory for subsequent allocations. + +### Discussion + +In contrast to the bump allocator, the linked list allocator is much more suitable as a general-purpose allocator, mainly because it is able to directly reuse freed memory. However, it also has some drawbacks. Some of them are only caused by our basic implementation, but there are also fundamental drawbacks of the allocator design itself. + +#### Merging Freed Blocks + +The main problem with our implementation is that it only splits the heap into smaller blocks but never merges them back together. Consider this example: + +![](linked-list-allocator-fragmentation-on-dealloc.svg) + +In the first line, three allocations are created on the heap. Two of them are freed again in line 2 and the third is freed in line 3. Now the complete heap is unused again, but it is still split into four individual blocks. At this point, a large allocation might not be possible anymore because none of the four blocks is large enough. Over time, the process continues, and the heap is split into smaller and smaller blocks. At some point, the heap is so fragmented that even normal sized allocations will fail. + +To fix this problem, we need to merge adjacent freed blocks back together. For the above example, this would mean the following: + +![](linked-list-allocator-merge-on-dealloc.svg) + +Like before, two of the three allocations are freed in line `2`. Instead of keeping the fragmented heap, we now perform an additional step in line `2a` to merge the two rightmost blocks back together. In line `3`, the third allocation is freed (like before), resulting in a completely unused heap represented by three distinct blocks. In an additional merging step in line `3a`, we then merge the three adjacent blocks back together. + +The `linked_list_allocator` crate implements this merging strategy in the following way: Instead of inserting freed memory blocks at the beginning of the linked list on `deallocate`, it always keeps the list sorted by start address. This way, merging can be performed directly on the `deallocate` call by examining the addresses and sizes of the two neighboring blocks in the list. Of course, the deallocation operation is slower this way, but it prevents the heap fragmentation we saw above. + +#### Performance + +As we learned above, the bump allocator is extremely fast and can be optimized to just a few assembly operations. The linked list allocator performs much worse in this category. The problem is that an allocation request might need to traverse the complete linked list until it finds a suitable block. + +Since the list length depends on the number of unused memory blocks, the performance can vary extremely for different programs. A program that only creates a couple of allocations will experience relatively fast allocation performance. For a program that fragments the heap with many allocations, however, the allocation performance will be very bad because the linked list will be very long and mostly contain very small blocks. + +It's worth noting that this performance issue isn't a problem caused by our basic implementation but a fundamental problem of the linked list approach. Since allocation performance can be very important for kernel-level code, we explore a third allocator design in the following that trades improved performance for reduced memory utilization. + +## Fixed-Size Block Allocator + +In the following, we present an allocator design that uses fixed-size memory blocks for fulfilling allocation requests. This way, the allocator often returns blocks that are larger than needed for allocations, which results in wasted memory due to [internal fragmentation]. On the other hand, it drastically reduces the time required to find a suitable block (compared to the linked list allocator), resulting in much better allocation performance. + +### Introduction + +The idea behind a _fixed-size block allocator_ is the following: Instead of allocating exactly as much memory as requested, we define a small number of block sizes and round up each allocation to the next block size. For example, with block sizes of 16, 64, and 512 bytes, an allocation of 4 bytes would return a 16-byte block, an allocation of 48 bytes a 64-byte block, and an allocation of 128 bytes a 512-byte block. + +Like the linked list allocator, we keep track of the unused memory by creating a linked list in the unused memory. However, instead of using a single list with different block sizes, we create a separate list for each size class. Each list then only stores blocks of a single size. For example, with block sizes of 16, 64, and 512, there would be three separate linked lists in memory: + +![](fixed-size-block-example.svg). + +Instead of a single `head` pointer, we have the three head pointers `head_16`, `head_64`, and `head_512` that each point to the first unused block of the corresponding size. All nodes in a single list have the same size. For example, the list started by the `head_16` pointer only contains 16-byte blocks. This means that we no longer need to store the size in each list node since it is already specified by the name of the head pointer. + +Since each element in a list has the same size, each list element is equally suitable for an allocation request. This means that we can very efficiently perform an allocation using the following steps: + +- Round up the requested allocation size to the next block size. For example, when an allocation of 12 bytes is requested, we would choose the block size of 16 in the above example. +- Retrieve the head pointer for the list, e.g., for block size 16, we need to use `head_16`. +- Remove the first block from the list and return it. + +Most notably, we can always return the first element of the list and no longer need to traverse the full list. Thus, allocations are much faster than with the linked list allocator. + +#### Block Sizes and Wasted Memory + +Depending on the block sizes, we lose a lot of memory by rounding up. For example, when a 512-byte block is returned for a 128-byte allocation, three-quarters of the allocated memory is unused. By defining reasonable block sizes, it is possible to limit the amount of wasted memory to some degree. For example, when using the powers of 2 (4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, …) as block sizes, we can limit the memory waste to half of the allocation size in the worst case and a quarter of the allocation size in the average case. + +It is also common to optimize block sizes based on common allocation sizes in a program. For example, we could additionally add block size 24 to improve memory usage for programs that often perform allocations of 24 bytes. This way, the amount of wasted memory can often be reduced without losing the performance benefits. + +#### Deallocation + +Much like allocation, deallocation is also very performant. It involves the following steps: + +- Round up the freed allocation size to the next block size. This is required since the compiler only passes the requested allocation size to `dealloc`, not the size of the block that was returned by `alloc`. By using the same size-adjustment function in both `alloc` and `dealloc`, we can make sure that we always free the correct amount of memory. +- Retrieve the head pointer for the list. +- Add the freed block to the front of the list by updating the head pointer. + +Most notably, no traversal of the list is required for deallocation either. This means that the time required for a `dealloc` call stays the same regardless of the list length. + +#### Fallback Allocator + +Given that large allocations (>2 KB) are often rare, especially in operating system kernels, it might make sense to fall back to a different allocator for these allocations. For example, we could fall back to a linked list allocator for allocations greater than 2048 bytes in order to reduce memory waste. Since only very few allocations of that size are expected, the linked list would stay small and the (de)allocations would still be reasonably fast. + +#### Creating new Blocks + +Above, we always assumed that there are always enough blocks of a specific size in the list to fulfill all allocation requests. However, at some point, the linked list for a given block size becomes empty. At this point, there are two ways we can create new unused blocks of a specific size to fulfill an allocation request: + +- Allocate a new block from the fallback allocator (if there is one). +- Split a larger block from a different list. This best works if block sizes are powers of two. For example, a 32-byte block can be split into two 16-byte blocks. + +For our implementation, we will allocate new blocks from the fallback allocator since the implementation is much simpler. + +### Implementation + +Now that we know how a fixed-size block allocator works, we can start our implementation. We won't depend on the implementation of the linked list allocator created in the previous section, so you can follow this part even if you skipped the linked list allocator implementation. + +#### List Node + +We start our implementation by creating a `ListNode` type in a new `allocator::fixed_size_block` module: + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +pub mod fixed_size_block; +``` + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +struct ListNode { + next: Option<&'static mut ListNode>, +} +``` + +This type is similar to the `ListNode` type of our [linked list allocator implementation], with the difference that we don't have a `size` field. It isn't needed because every block in a list has the same size with the fixed-size block allocator design. + +[linked list allocator implementation]: #the-allocator-type + +#### Block Sizes + +Next, we define a constant `BLOCK_SIZES` slice with the block sizes used for our implementation: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +/// The block sizes to use. +/// +/// The sizes must each be power of 2 because they are also used as +/// the block alignment (alignments must be always powers of 2). +const BLOCK_SIZES: &[usize] = &[8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048]; +``` + +As block sizes, we use powers of 2, starting from 8 up to 2048. We don't define any block sizes smaller than 8 because each block must be capable of storing a 64-bit pointer to the next block when freed. For allocations greater than 2048 bytes, we will fall back to a linked list allocator. + +To simplify the implementation, we define the size of a block as its required alignment in memory. So a 16-byte block is always aligned on a 16-byte boundary and a 512-byte block is aligned on a 512-byte boundary. Since alignments always need to be powers of 2, this rules out any other block sizes. If we need block sizes that are not powers of 2 in the future, we can still adjust our implementation for this (e.g., by defining a second `BLOCK_ALIGNMENTS` array). + +#### The Allocator Type + +Using the `ListNode` type and the `BLOCK_SIZES` slice, we can now define our allocator type: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +pub struct FixedSizeBlockAllocator { + list_heads: [Option<&'static mut ListNode>; BLOCK_SIZES.len()], + fallback_allocator: linked_list_allocator::Heap, +} +``` + +The `list_heads` field is an array of `head` pointers, one for each block size. This is implemented by using the `len()` of the `BLOCK_SIZES` slice as the array length. As a fallback allocator for allocations larger than the largest block size, we use the allocator provided by the `linked_list_allocator`. We could also use the `LinkedListAllocator` we implemented ourselves instead, but it has the disadvantage that it does not [merge freed blocks]. + +[merge freed blocks]: #merging-freed-blocks + +For constructing a `FixedSizeBlockAllocator`, we provide the same `new` and `init` functions that we implemented for the other allocator types too: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +impl FixedSizeBlockAllocator { + /// Creates an empty FixedSizeBlockAllocator. + pub const fn new() -> Self { + const EMPTY: Option<&'static mut ListNode> = None; + FixedSizeBlockAllocator { + list_heads: [EMPTY; BLOCK_SIZES.len()], + fallback_allocator: linked_list_allocator::Heap::empty(), + } + } + + /// Initialize the allocator with the given heap bounds. + /// + /// This function is unsafe because the caller must guarantee that the given + /// heap bounds are valid and that the heap is unused. This method must be + /// called only once. + pub unsafe fn init(&mut self, heap_start: usize, heap_size: usize) { + unsafe { self.fallback_allocator.init(heap_start, heap_size); } + } +} +``` + +The `new` function just initializes the `list_heads` array with empty nodes and creates an [`empty`] linked list allocator as `fallback_allocator`. The `EMPTY` constant is needed to tell the Rust compiler that we want to initialize the array with a constant value. Initializing the array directly as `[None; BLOCK_SIZES.len()]` does not work, because then the compiler requires `Option<&'static mut ListNode>` to implement the `Copy` trait, which it does not. This is a current limitation of the Rust compiler, which might go away in the future. + +[`empty`]: https://docs.rs/linked_list_allocator/0.9.0/linked_list_allocator/struct.Heap.html#method.empty + +The unsafe `init` function only calls the [`init`] function of the `fallback_allocator` without doing any additional initialization of the `list_heads` array. Instead, we will initialize the lists lazily on `alloc` and `dealloc` calls. + +[`init`]: https://docs.rs/linked_list_allocator/0.9.0/linked_list_allocator/struct.Heap.html#method.init + +For convenience, we also create a private `fallback_alloc` method that allocates using the `fallback_allocator`: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +use alloc::alloc::Layout; +use core::ptr; + +impl FixedSizeBlockAllocator { + /// Allocates using the fallback allocator. + fn fallback_alloc(&mut self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { + match self.fallback_allocator.allocate_first_fit(layout) { + Ok(ptr) => ptr.as_ptr(), + Err(_) => ptr::null_mut(), + } + } +} +``` + +The [`Heap`] type of the `linked_list_allocator` crate does not implement [`GlobalAlloc`] (as it's [not possible without locking]). Instead, it provides an [`allocate_first_fit`] method that has a slightly different interface. Instead of returning a `*mut u8` and using a null pointer to signal an error, it returns a `Result, ()>`. The [`NonNull`] type is an abstraction for a raw pointer that is guaranteed to not be a null pointer. By mapping the `Ok` case to the [`NonNull::as_ptr`] method and the `Err` case to a null pointer, we can easily translate this back to a `*mut u8` type. + +[`Heap`]: https://docs.rs/linked_list_allocator/0.9.0/linked_list_allocator/struct.Heap.html +[not possible without locking]: #globalalloc-and-mutability +[`allocate_first_fit`]: https://docs.rs/linked_list_allocator/0.9.0/linked_list_allocator/struct.Heap.html#method.allocate_first_fit +[`NonNull`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/core/ptr/struct.NonNull.html +[`NonNull::as_ptr`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/core/ptr/struct.NonNull.html#method.as_ptr + +#### Calculating the List Index + +Before we implement the `GlobalAlloc` trait, we define a `list_index` helper function that returns the lowest possible block size for a given [`Layout`]: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +/// Choose an appropriate block size for the given layout. +/// +/// Returns an index into the `BLOCK_SIZES` array. +fn list_index(layout: &Layout) -> Option { + let required_block_size = layout.size().max(layout.align()); + BLOCK_SIZES.iter().position(|&s| s >= required_block_size) +} +``` + +The block must have at least the size and alignment required by the given `Layout`. Since we defined that the block size is also its alignment, this means that the `required_block_size` is the [maximum] of the layout's [`size()`] and [`align()`] attributes. To find the next-larger block in the `BLOCK_SIZES` slice, we first use the [`iter()`] method to get an iterator and then the [`position()`] method to find the index of the first block that is at least as large as the `required_block_size`. + +[maximum]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/cmp/trait.Ord.html#method.max +[`size()`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/alloc/struct.Layout.html#method.size +[`align()`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/alloc/struct.Layout.html#method.align +[`iter()`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.slice.html#method.iter +[`position()`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/iter/trait.Iterator.html#method.position + +Note that we don't return the block size itself, but the index into the `BLOCK_SIZES` slice. The reason is that we want to use the returned index as an index into the `list_heads` array. + +#### Implementing `GlobalAlloc` + +The last step is to implement the `GlobalAlloc` trait: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +use super::Locked; +use alloc::alloc::GlobalAlloc; + +unsafe impl GlobalAlloc for Locked { + unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { + todo!(); + } + + unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) { + todo!(); + } +} +``` + +Like for the other allocators, we don't implement the `GlobalAlloc` trait directly for our allocator type, but use the [`Locked` wrapper] to add synchronized interior mutability. Since the `alloc` and `dealloc` implementations are relatively large, we introduce them one by one in the following. + +##### `alloc` + +The implementation of the `alloc` method looks like this: + +```rust +// in `impl` block in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +unsafe fn alloc(&self, layout: Layout) -> *mut u8 { + let mut allocator = self.lock(); + match list_index(&layout) { + Some(index) => { + match allocator.list_heads[index].take() { + Some(node) => { + allocator.list_heads[index] = node.next.take(); + node as *mut ListNode as *mut u8 + } + None => { + // no block exists in list => allocate new block + let block_size = BLOCK_SIZES[index]; + // only works if all block sizes are a power of 2 + let block_align = block_size; + let layout = Layout::from_size_align(block_size, block_align) + .unwrap(); + allocator.fallback_alloc(layout) + } + } + } + None => allocator.fallback_alloc(layout), + } +} +``` + +Let's go through it step by step: + +First, we use the `Locked::lock` method to get a mutable reference to the wrapped allocator instance. Next, we call the `list_index` function we just defined to calculate the appropriate block size for the given layout and get the corresponding index into the `list_heads` array. If this index is `None`, no block size fits for the allocation, therefore we use the `fallback_allocator` using the `fallback_alloc` function. + +If the list index is `Some`, we try to remove the first node in the corresponding list started by `list_heads[index]` using the [`Option::take`] method. If the list is not empty, we enter the `Some(node)` branch of the `match` statement, where we point the head pointer of the list to the successor of the popped `node` (by using [`take`][`Option::take`] again). Finally, we return the popped `node` pointer as a `*mut u8`. + +[`Option::take`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/option/enum.Option.html#method.take + +If the list head is `None`, it indicates that the list of blocks is empty. This means that we need to construct a new block as [described above](#creating-new-blocks). For that, we first get the current block size from the `BLOCK_SIZES` slice and use it as both the size and the alignment for the new block. Then we create a new `Layout` from it and call the `fallback_alloc` method to perform the allocation. The reason for adjusting the layout and alignment is that the block will be added to the block list on deallocation. + +#### `dealloc` + +The implementation of the `dealloc` method looks like this: + +```rust +// in src/allocator/fixed_size_block.rs + +use core::{mem, ptr::NonNull}; + +// inside the `unsafe impl GlobalAlloc` block + +unsafe fn dealloc(&self, ptr: *mut u8, layout: Layout) { + let mut allocator = self.lock(); + match list_index(&layout) { + Some(index) => { + let new_node = ListNode { + next: allocator.list_heads[index].take(), + }; + // verify that block has size and alignment required for storing node + assert!(mem::size_of::() <= BLOCK_SIZES[index]); + assert!(mem::align_of::() <= BLOCK_SIZES[index]); + let new_node_ptr = ptr as *mut ListNode; + unsafe { + new_node_ptr.write(new_node); + allocator.list_heads[index] = Some(&mut *new_node_ptr); + } + } + None => { + let ptr = NonNull::new(ptr).unwrap(); + unsafe { + allocator.fallback_allocator.deallocate(ptr, layout); + } + } + } +} +``` + +Like in `alloc`, we first use the `lock` method to get a mutable allocator reference and then the `list_index` function to get the block list corresponding to the given `Layout`. If the index is `None`, no fitting block size exists in `BLOCK_SIZES`, which indicates that the allocation was created by the fallback allocator. Therefore, we use its [`deallocate`][`Heap::deallocate`] to free the memory again. The method expects a [`NonNull`] instead of a `*mut u8`, so we need to convert the pointer first. (The `unwrap` call only fails when the pointer is null, which should never happen when the compiler calls `dealloc`.) + +[`Heap::deallocate`]: https://docs.rs/linked_list_allocator/0.9.0/linked_list_allocator/struct.Heap.html#method.deallocate + +If `list_index` returns a block index, we need to add the freed memory block to the list. For that, we first create a new `ListNode` that points to the current list head (by using [`Option::take`] again). Before we write the new node into the freed memory block, we first assert that the current block size specified by `index` has the required size and alignment for storing a `ListNode`. Then we perform the write by converting the given `*mut u8` pointer to a `*mut ListNode` pointer and then calling the unsafe [`write`][`pointer::write`] method on it. The last step is to set the head pointer of the list, which is currently `None` since we called `take` on it, to our newly written `ListNode`. For that, we convert the raw `new_node_ptr` to a mutable reference. + +[`pointer::write`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.pointer.html#method.write + +There are a few things worth noting: + +- We don't differentiate between blocks allocated from a block list and blocks allocated from the fallback allocator. This means that new blocks created in `alloc` are added to the block list on `dealloc`, thereby increasing the number of blocks of that size. +- The `alloc` method is the only place where new blocks are created in our implementation. This means that we initially start with empty block lists and only fill these lists lazily when allocations of their block size are performed. +- We don't need `unsafe` blocks in `alloc` and `dealloc`, even though we perform some `unsafe` operations. The reason is that Rust currently treats the complete body of unsafe functions as one large `unsafe` block. Since using explicit `unsafe` blocks has the advantage that it's obvious which operations are unsafe and which are not, there is a [proposed RFC](https://github.com/rust-lang/rfcs/pull/2585) to change this behavior. + +### Using it + +To use our new `FixedSizeBlockAllocator`, we need to update the `ALLOCATOR` static in the `allocator` module: + +```rust +// in src/allocator.rs + +use fixed_size_block::FixedSizeBlockAllocator; + +#[global_allocator] +static ALLOCATOR: Locked = Locked::new( + FixedSizeBlockAllocator::new()); +``` + +Since the `init` function behaves the same for all allocators we implemented, we don't need to modify the `init` call in `init_heap`. + +When we now run our `heap_allocation` tests again, all tests should still pass: + +``` +> cargo test --test heap_allocation +simple_allocation... [ok] +large_vec... [ok] +many_boxes... [ok] +many_boxes_long_lived... [ok] +``` + +Our new allocator seems to work! + +### Discussion + +While the fixed-size block approach has much better performance than the linked list approach, it wastes up to half of the memory when using powers of 2 as block sizes. Whether this tradeoff is worth it heavily depends on the application type. For an operating system kernel, where performance is critical, the fixed-size block approach seems to be the better choice. + +On the implementation side, there are various things that we could improve in our current implementation: + +- Instead of only allocating blocks lazily using the fallback allocator, it might be better to pre-fill the lists to improve the performance of initial allocations. +- To simplify the implementation, we only allowed block sizes that are powers of 2 so that we could also use them as the block alignment. By storing (or calculating) the alignment in a different way, we could also allow arbitrary other block sizes. This way, we could add more block sizes, e.g., for common allocation sizes, in order to minimize the wasted memory. +- We currently only create new blocks, but never free them again. This results in fragmentation and might eventually result in allocation failure for large allocations. It might make sense to enforce a maximum list length for each block size. When the maximum length is reached, subsequent deallocations are freed using the fallback allocator instead of being added to the list. +- Instead of falling back to a linked list allocator, we could have a special allocator for allocations greater than 4 KiB. The idea is to utilize [paging], which operates on 4 KiB pages, to map a continuous block of virtual memory to non-continuous physical frames. This way, fragmentation of unused memory is no longer a problem for large allocations. +- With such a page allocator, it might make sense to add block sizes up to 4 KiB and drop the linked list allocator completely. The main advantages of this would be reduced fragmentation and improved performance predictability, i.e., better worst-case performance. + +[paging]: @/edition-2/posts/08-paging-introduction/index.md + +It's important to note that the implementation improvements outlined above are only suggestions. Allocators used in operating system kernels are typically highly optimized for the specific workload of the kernel, which is only possible through extensive profiling. + +### Variations + +There are also many variations of the fixed-size block allocator design. Two popular examples are the _slab allocator_ and the _buddy allocator_, which are also used in popular kernels such as Linux. In the following, we give a short introduction to these two designs. + +#### Slab Allocator + +The idea behind a [slab allocator] is to use block sizes that directly correspond to selected types in the kernel. This way, allocations of those types fit a block size exactly and no memory is wasted. Sometimes, it might be even possible to preinitialize type instances in unused blocks to further improve performance. + +[slab allocator]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slab_allocation + +Slab allocation is often combined with other allocators. For example, it can be used together with a fixed-size block allocator to further split an allocated block in order to reduce memory waste. It is also often used to implement an [object pool pattern] on top of a single large allocation. + +[object pool pattern]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_pool_pattern + +#### Buddy Allocator + +Instead of using a linked list to manage freed blocks, the [buddy allocator] design uses a [binary tree] data structure together with power-of-2 block sizes. When a new block of a certain size is required, it splits a larger sized block into two halves, thereby creating two child nodes in the tree. Whenever a block is freed again, its neighbor block in the tree is analyzed. If the neighbor is also free, the two blocks are joined back together to form a block of twice the size. + +The advantage of this merge process is that [external fragmentation] is reduced so that small freed blocks can be reused for a large allocation. It also does not use a fallback allocator, so the performance is more predictable. The biggest drawback is that only power-of-2 block sizes are possible, which might result in a large amount of wasted memory due to [internal fragmentation]. For this reason, buddy allocators are often combined with a slab allocator to further split an allocated block into multiple smaller blocks. + +[buddy allocator]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_memory_allocation +[binary tree]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_tree +[external fragmentation]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentation_(computing)#External_fragmentation +[internal fragmentation]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentation_(computing)#Internal_fragmentation + + +## Summary + +This post gave an overview of different allocator designs. We learned how to implement a basic [bump allocator], which hands out memory linearly by increasing a single `next` pointer. While bump allocation is very fast, it can only reuse memory after all allocations have been freed. For this reason, it is rarely used as a global allocator. + +[bump allocator]: @/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.md#bump-allocator + +Next, we created a [linked list allocator] that uses the freed memory blocks itself to create a linked list, the so-called [free list]. This list makes it possible to store an arbitrary number of freed blocks of different sizes. While no memory waste occurs, the approach suffers from poor performance because an allocation request might require a complete traversal of the list. Our implementation also suffers from [external fragmentation] because it does not merge adjacent freed blocks back together. + +[linked list allocator]: @/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.md#linked-list-allocator +[free list]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_list + +To fix the performance problems of the linked list approach, we created a [fixed-size block allocator] that predefines a fixed set of block sizes. For each block size, a separate [free list] exists so that allocations and deallocations only need to insert/pop at the front of the list and are thus very fast. Since each allocation is rounded up to the next larger block size, some memory is wasted due to [internal fragmentation]. + +[fixed-size block allocator]: @/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.md#fixed-size-block-allocator + +There are many more allocator designs with different tradeoffs. [Slab allocation] works well to optimize the allocation of common fixed-size structures, but is not applicable in all situations. [Buddy allocation] uses a binary tree to merge freed blocks back together, but wastes a large amount of memory because it only supports power-of-2 block sizes. It's also important to remember that each kernel implementation has a unique workload, so there is no "best" allocator design that fits all cases. + +[Slab allocation]: @/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.md#slab-allocator +[Buddy allocation]: @/edition-2/posts/11-allocator-designs/index.md#buddy-allocator + + +## What's next? + +With this post, we conclude our memory management implementation for now. Next, we will start exploring [_multitasking_], starting with cooperative multitasking in the form of [_async/await_]. In subsequent posts, we will then explore [_threads_], [_multiprocessing_], and [_processes_]. + +[_multitasking_]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking +[_threads_]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing) +[_processes_]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing) +[_multiprocessing_]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessing +[_async/await_]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/01_getting_started/04_async_await_primer.html